The Unbroken Chain: A Beginner’s Guide to the Preservation of the Quran

Title: The Unbroken Chain: A Beginner’s Guide to the Preservation of the Qur’an

Authors: Maaz Ahmad, Sana Amjad

Date: July 19, 2024

Publisher: Wisdom Connect

Website: www.wisdomconnect.io

Contact: info@wisdomconnect.io

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Authors Information

Maaz Ahmad, an Indian entrepreneur, dedicates his efforts to managing his IT firm and producing scholarly articles. He established Wisdom Connect to act as an intermediary between individuals without specialized knowledge and experts in the field. Haytem Sidky and Jonathan A.C. Brown, esteemed scholars, served as a source of inspiration and influence for his scholarly endeavors.

Sana Amjad, coming from Pakistan, is a dedicated learner pursuing courses in Islamic theology and psychology. She is a psychology student pursuing her undergraduate degree and holds a Master’s degree in Islamic Studies. Her primary reason for working is to fulfill her devotion to Allah and contribute to the welfare of the Muslim community.

Abstract

Despite the Quran’s broad renown as the most preserved sacred text, many people are ignorant of its comprehensive history, from its revelation to its printing. This paper presents a thorough examination of the historical aspects of the Quranic text and specifically addresses the inquiries posed by Orientalists regarding the Quran during the past two centuries. Specifically, we analyze Orientalists who endeavor to make arguments opposing the preservation of the Quran. Initially, we will examine the historical origins of the Quranic text using trustworthy sources. Next, we will go into the history of Quranic interpretation and its intended significance. Lastly, we will tackle several problematic hadiths that are connected to the Quran. Throughout this procedure, we shall engage in a comprehensive examination of the initial manuscripts of the Quran.

Acknowledgments

Firstly, we would want to express our gratitude to Allah, the only deity. Despite my hectic schedule, I managed to write this paper. I express profound gratitude to esteemed academics including Akram Nadwi, Ali Ataie, Hafiz Muhammad Zubair, Jonathan A.C. Brown, Muhammad Mustafa Azmi, and Yasir Qadhi, whose influence has inspired me to write a fundamental piece on the preservation of the Quran. I would like to express my sincere appreciation to Sana Amjad for her outstanding contributions in the field of Arabic texts, tafsir, and early liturgies. Her assistance was crucial in enabling me to publish and complete it within the current timeframe. I express my heartfelt gratitude to Sarmad Chauhadry for his encouragement in the development of platforms such as Wisdom Connect, which aims to facilitate communication between ordinary individuals and intellectuals.

Lastly, I would like to express my gratitude to Seema Qaiser for her exceptional recommendations and unwavering assistance. The feedback she provided was really valuable in simplifying the article for anyone without specialized knowledge.

The Quran

The Quran is widely defined in various ways, but these differences are merely in wording, not in meaning. A suitable definition is: The Quran is the Arabic speech of Allah, revealed to Muhammad (PBUH) in both word and meaning, which has been preserved in written form (Mushafs), transmitted through reliable, numerous chains (mutawatir), and challenged humanity to produce something comparable.

Details of this Definition

The Quran is Allah’s Arabic speech.

1. Quran [12:2] ‘إِنَّآ أَنزَلْنَـٰهُ قُرْءَانًا عَرَبِيًّۭا لَّعَلَّكُمْ تَعْقِلُونَ’ “Indeed, We have sent it down as an Arabic Quran that you might understand.”
2. Quran [20:113] ‘وَكَذَٰلِكَ أَنزَلْنَـٰهُ قُرْءَانًا عَرَبِيًّۭا وَصَرَّفْنَا فِيهِ مِنَ ٱلْوَعِيدِ لَعَلَّهُمْ يَتَّقُونَ أَوْ يُحْدِثُ لَهُمْ ذِكْرًۭا’ “And thus We have sent it down as an Arabic Quran and have diversified therein the warnings that perhaps they will avoid [sin] or it would cause them remembrance.”
3. Quran [26:195] ‘بِلِسَانٍ عَرَبِىٍّۢ مُّبِينٍۢ’ “In a clear Arabic language.”
4. Quran [16:103] ‘وَلَقَدْ نَعْلَمُ أَنَّهُمْ يَقُولُونَ إِنَّمَا يُعَلِّمُهُۥ بَشَرٌۭ ۗ لِّسَانُ ٱلَّذِى يُلْحِدُونَ إِلَيْهِ أَعْجَمِىٌّۭ وَهَـٰذَا لِسَانٌۭ عَرَبِىٌّۭ مُّبِينٌ’ “And We certainly know that they say, ‘It is only a human being who teaches him.’ The tongue of the one they refer to is foreign, and this [recitation] is in clear Arabic.”
5. Quran [39:28] ‘قُرْءَانًۭا عَرَبِيًّۭا غَيْرَ ذِى عِوَجٍۢ لَّعَلَّهُمْ يَتَّقُونَ’ “[It is] an Arabic Quran, without any deviance that they might become righteous.”
6. Quran [41:3] ‘كِتَـٰبٌۭ فُصِّلَتْ ءَايَـٰتُهُۥ قُرْءَانًا عَرَبِيًّۭا لِّقَوْمٍۢ يَعْلَمُونَ’ “[It is] a Book whose verses have been detailed, an Arabic Quran for people who know.”
7. Quran [42:7] ‘وَكَذَٰلِكَ أَوْحَيْنَآ إِلَيْكَ قُرْءَانًا عَرَبِيًّۭا لِّتُنذِرَ أُمَّ ٱلْقُرَىٰ وَمَنْ حَوْلَهَا وَتُنذِرَ يَوْمَ ٱلْجَمْعِ لَا رَيْبَ فِيهِ ۚ فَرِيقٌۭ فِى ٱلْجَنَّةِ وَفَرِيقٌۭ فِى ٱلسَّعِيرِ’ “And thus We have revealed to you an Arabic Quran that you may warn the mother of Cities and those around it and warn of the Day of Assembly, about which there is no doubt. A party will be in Paradise, and a party will be in the Blaze.”
8. Quran [43:3] ‘إِنَّا جَعَلْنَـٰهُ قُرْءَانًا عَرَبِيًّۭا لَّعَلَّكُمْ تَعْقِلُونَ’ “Indeed, We have made it an Arabic Quran that you might understand.”
9. Quran [46:12] ‘وَمِن قَبْلِهِۦ كِتَـٰبُ مُوسَىٰٓ إِمَامًۭا وَرَحْمَةًۭ ۚ وَهَـٰذَا كِتَـٰبٌۭ مُّصَدِّقٌۭ لِّسَانًا عَرَبِيًّۭا لِّيُنذِرَ ٱلَّذِينَ ظَلَمُوا۟ وَبُشْرَىٰ لِلْمُحْسِنِينَ’ “And before it was the Scripture of Moses to lead and as a mercy. And this is a confirming Book in an Arabic tongue to warn those who have wronged and as good tidings to the doers of good.”
10. Quran [13:37] ‘وَكَذَٰلِكَ أَنزَلْنَـٰهُ حُكْمًا عَرَبِيًّۭا ۚ وَلَئِنِ ٱتَّبَعْتَ أَهْوَآءَهُم بَعْدَ مَا جَآءَكَ مِنَ ٱلْعِلْمِ مَا لَكَ مِنَ ٱللَّهِ مِن وَلِىٍّۢ وَلَا وَاقٍ’ “And thus We have revealed it as an Arabic legislation. And if you should follow their inclinations after what has come to you of knowledge, you would not have against Allah any ally or any protector.”
11. Quran [19:97] ‘فَإِنَّمَا يَسَّرْنَـٰهُ بِلِسَانِكَ لِتُبَشِّرَ بِهِ ٱلْمُتَّقِينَ وَتُنذِرَ بِهِۦ قَوْمًۭا لُّدًّۭا’ “So, [O Muhammad], We have only made it easy in your tongue that you may give good tidings thereby to the righteous and warn thereby a hostile people.”
12. Quran [44:58] ‘فَإِنَّمَا يَسَّرْنَـٰهُ بِلِسَانِكَ لَعَلَّهُمْ يَتَذَكَّرُونَ’ “And indeed, We have eased the Quran in your tongue that they might be reminded.”

This means that any translation of the Quran cannot be considered a Quran. Imam az-Zarkashee asserted that the revelation of the Quran took place in Arabic, thereby prohibiting its recitation in any other language, and Ibn Qudama also says in Al-Mughni that reciting in a non-Arabic language will not be sufficient, nor will reciting the Arabic words of the Quran by replacing them with other words of the Arabic language, whether he knows Arabic or not.

Muhammad (PBUH) received the Quran’s words and meaning.

Verses Emphasizing Words of Revelation

1. Quran [53:3-4] ‘وَمَا يَنطِقُ عَنِ ٱلْهَوَىٰٓ. إِنْ هُوَ إِلَّا وَحْىٌۭ يُوحَىٰ’ “Nor does he speak from [his own] inclination. It is nothing except a revelation revealed.”
2. Quran [75:16-18] ‘لَا تُحَرِّكْ بِهِۦ لِسَانَكَ لِتَعْجَلَ بِهِۦٓ. إِنَّ عَلَيْنَا جَمْعَهُۥ وَقُرْءَانَهُۥ. فَإِذَا قَرَأْنَـٰهُ فَٱتَّبِعْ قُرْءَانَهُۥ’ “Do not move your tongue with it to hasten it. Indeed, upon Us is its collection [in your heart] and [to make possible] its recitation. So, when We have recited it [through Gabriel], then follow its recitation.”
3. Quran [87:6] ‘سَنُقْرِئُكَ فَلَا تَنسَىٰٓ’ “We will make you recite [O Muhammad], and you will not forget.”
4. Quran [15:9] ‘إِنَّا نَحْنُ نَزَّلْنَا ٱلذِّكْرَ وَإِنَّا لَهُۥ لَحَـٰفِظُونَ’ “Indeed, it is We who sent down the Quran, and indeed, We will be its guardian.”

Verses Emphasizing the Meanings of Revelation:

1. Quran [75:19] ‘ثُمَّ إِنَّ عَلَيْنَا بَيَانَهُۥ’ “Then upon Us is its clarification [to you].”
2. Quran [16:44] ‘بِٱلْبَيِّنَـٰتِ وَٱلزُّبُرِ ۗ وَأَنزَلْنَآ إِلَيْكَ ٱلذِّكْرَ لِتُبَيِّنَ لِلنَّاسِ مَا نُزِّلَ إِلَيْهِمْ وَلَعَلَّهُمْ يَتَفَكَّرُونَ’ “[We sent them] with clear proofs and written ordinances. And We revealed to you the message that you may make clear to the people what was sent down to them and that they might give thought.”
3. Quran [6:19] ‘قُلْ أَىُّ شَىْءٍ أَكْبَرُ شَهَـٰدَةًۭ ۖ قُلِ ٱللَّهُ ۖ شَهِيدٌۢ بَيْنِى وَبَيْنَكُمْ ۚ وَأُوحِىَ إِلَىَّ هَـٰذَا ٱلْقُرْءَانُ لِأُنذِرَكُم بِهِۦ وَمَنۢ بَلَغَ ۚ أَئِنَّكُمْ لَتَشْهَدُونَ أَنَّ مَعَ ٱللَّهِ ءَالِهَةًۭ أُخْرَىٰ ۚ قُل لَّآ أَشْهَدُ ۚ قُلْ إِنَّمَا هُوَ إِلَـٰهٌۭ وَٰحِدٌۭ وَإِنَّنِى بَرِىٓءٌۭ مِّمَّا تُشْرِكُونَ’ “Say, ‘What thing is the greatest as a testimony?’ Say, ‘Allah is witness between me and you. And this Quran was revealed to me that I may warn you thereby and whomever it reaches. Do you [truly] testify that with Allah there are other deities?’ Say, ‘I will not testify [with you].’ Say, ‘Indeed, He is but one God, and indeed, I am free of what you associate [with Him].'”
4. Quran [4:113] ‘وَلَوْلَا فَضْلُ ٱللَّهِ عَلَيْكَ وَرَحْمَتُهُۥ لَهَمَّت طَّآئِفَةٌۭ مِّنْهُمْ أَن يُضِلُّوكَ وَمَا يُضِلُّونَ إِلَّآ أَنفُسَهُمْ وَمَا يَضُرُّونَكَ مِن شَىْءٍۢ ۚ وَأَنزَلَ ٱللَّهُ عَلَيْكَ ٱلْكِتَـٰبَ وَٱلْحِكْمَةَ وَعَلَّمَكَ مَا لَمْ تَكُن تَعْلَمُ ۚ وَكَانَ فَضْلُ ٱللَّهِ عَلَيْكَ عَظِيمًۭا’ “And if it were not for the favor of Allah upon you, [O Muhammad], and His mercy, a group of them would have been determined to mislead you. But they do not mislead except themselves, and they will not harm you at all. And Allah has revealed to you the Book and wisdom and has taught you that which you did not know. And ever has the favor of Allah upon you been great.”
5. Quran [2:151] ‘كَمَآ أَرْسَلْنَا فِيكُمْ رَسُولًۭا مِّنكُمْ يَتْلُوا۟ عَلَيْكُمْ ءَايَـٰتِنَا وَيُزَكِّيكُمْ وَيُعَلِّمُكُمُ ٱلْكِتَـٰبَ وَٱلْحِكْمَةَ وَيُعَلِّمُكُم مَّا لَمْ تَكُونُوا۟ تَعْلَمُونَ’ “Just as We have sent among you a messenger from yourselves reciting to you Our verses and purifying you and teaching you the Book and wisdom and teaching you that which you did not know.”

Verses Emphasizing Both Words and Meanings of Revelation:

1. Quran [20:114] ‘فَتَعَـٰلَى ٱللَّهُ ٱلْمَلِكُ ٱلْحَقُّ ۗ وَلَا تَعْجَلْ بِٱلْقُرْءَانِ مِن قَبْلِ أَن يُقْضَىٰٓ إِلَيْكَ وَحْيُهُۥ وَقُل رَّبِّ زِدْنِى عِلْمًۭا’ “So high [above all] is Allah, the Sovereign, the Truth. And, [O Muhammad], do not hasten with [recitation of] the Quran before its revelation is completed to you, and say, ‘My Lord, increase me in knowledge.'”
2. Quran [2:97] ‘قُلْ مَن كَانَ عَدُوًّۭا لِّجِبْرِيلَ فَإِنَّهُۥ نَزَّلَهُۥ عَلَىٰ قَلْبِكَ بِإِذْنِ ٱللَّهِ مُصَدِّقًۭا لِّمَا بَيْنَ يَدَيْهِ وَهُدًۭى وَبُشْرَىٰ لِلْمُؤْمِنِينَ’ “Say, ‘Whoever is an enemy to Gabriel—it is [none but] he who has brought it [the Quran] down upon your heart, [O Muhammad], by permission of Allah, confirming that which was before it and as guidance and good tidings for the believers.'”

These verses collectively indicate that the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) received the Quran both in its verbal form (words) and in its intended meanings.

The Quran has been preserved in written form (Mushafs) and transmitted through reliable, numerous chains (mutawatir).

The literal meaning of Mushafs is a collection of pages or a compiled book. In the Quranic context, it refers to a written or printed copy of the Quran. The Quran, which was written at the time of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), was compiled at the time of Abu Bakr and standardized at the time of Uthman Ibn Affan. Which contains 114 surahs from Surah al-Fatiha to Surah an-Naas.

Furthermore, “…and has reached us by mutawatir transmissions…” means the Quran was transmitted through numerous reliable narrations across generations, ensuring its authenticity.

Challenging humanity to produce something comparable.

1. Quran [17:88]قُل لَّئِنِ ٱجْتَمَعَتِ ٱلْإِنسُ وَٱلْجِنُّ عَلَىٰٓ أَن يَأْتُوا۟ بِمِثْلِ هَـٰذَا ٱلْقُرْءَانِ لَا يَأْتُونَ بِمِثْلِهِۦ وَلَوْ كَانَ بَعْضُهُمْ لِبَعْضٍۢ ظَهِيرًۭا”Say, ‘If all of humankind and jinn were to come together to produce the like of this Quran, they could not produce the like of it, even if they were to each other’s assistants.'”
2. Quran [10:38]أَمْ يَقُولُونَ ٱفْتَرَىٰهُ ۖ قُلْ فَأْتُوا۟ بِسُورَةٍۢ مِّثْلِهِۦ وَٱدْعُوا۟ مَنِ ٱسْتَطَعْتُم مِّن دُونِ ٱللَّهِ إِن كُنتُمْ صَـٰدِقِينَ”Or do they say, ‘He fabricated it?’ Say, ‘Then bring forth a surah like it, and call upon whomever you can besides Allah if you should be truthful.'”
3. Quran [11:13]أَمْ يَقُولُونَ ٱفْتَرَىٰهُ ۖ قُلْ فَأْتُوا۟ بِعَشْرِ سُوَرٍۢ مِّثْلِهِۦ مُفْتَرَيَـٰتٍۢ وَٱدْعُوا۟ مَنِ ٱسْتَطَعْتُم مِّن دُونِ ٱللَّهِ إِن كُنتُمْ صَـٰدِقِينَ”Or do they say, ‘He invented it’? Say, ‘Then bring ten surahs like it that have been invented, and call upon whomever you can besides Allah, if you should be truthful.'”
4. Quran [2:23]وَإِن كُنتُمْ فِى رَيْبٍۢ مِّمَّا نَزَّلْنَا عَلَىٰ عَبْدِنَا فَأْتُوا۟ بِسُورَةٍۢ مِّن مِّثْلِهِۦ وَٱدْعُوا۟ شُهَدَآءَكُم مِّن دُونِ ٱللَّهِ إِن كُنتُمْ صَـٰدِقِينَ”And if you are in doubt about what We have sent down upon Our Servant, then produce a surah the like thereof and call upon your witnesses other than Allah, if you should be truthful.”
5. Quran [52:33–34]أَمْ يَقُولُونَ تَقَوَّلَهُۥ ۚ بَل لَّا يُؤْمِنُونَ. فَلْيَأْتُوا۟ بِحَدِيثٍۢ مِّثْلِهِۦٓ إِن كَانُوا۟ صَـٰدِقِينَ”Or do they say, ‘He has made it up’? Rather, they do not believe. Let them produce a statement like it if they should be truthful.”

These verses present a clear and open challenge to humanity, emphasizing the miraculous nature (ijazz) of the Quran. Despite various efforts throughout history, no one has succeeded in producing a text comparable in eloquence, depth, and guidance, and when we say Quran, it means it can be both the entire text and any part of it.

Uloom al-Quran

‘Uloom al-Quran, or ‘The Sciences of the Quran,’ encompasses the study of various disciplines directly related to the Quran’s recitation, history, comprehension, and application. This extensive field of Islamic scholarship holds significant importance.

In terms of the Quran’s history, ‘Uloom al-Quran covers the stages of its revelation, its compilation, the art and history of writing Quranic script (rasm al-masahif), and its preservation.

For understanding and implementing the Quran, ‘Uloom al-Quran includes the causes of revelation (Asbaab an-nuzool.^[1]), the knowledge of Meccan and Medinan revelations^[2], the forms (Ahruf^[3]) in which it was revealed, understanding abrogated rulings and verses (naasikh wa al-mansookh^[4]), the classifications of its verses (Muhkam and Mutashabih^[5], ‘aam and Khaas^[6], mutlaq and muqayyad^[7]), the inimitable style of the Quran (i’jaz al-Quran^[8]), interpretation (Tafseer^[9]), grammatical analysis (I’rab al-Quran^[10]), and uncommon words (Ghareeb al-Quran^[11]).

The History of Uloom al-Quran

Like other Islamic sciences, Uloom al-Quran started with the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), from whose life we have several examples. It then continued with the Companions, the Successors, and the Successors’ successors, among other things.

Examples from the Life of the Prophet:

Explanation of Difficult Words

1. Understanding Specific Words:

‘وَعَاشِرُوهُنَّ بِٱلْمَعْرُوفِ’ Quran [4:19]

“And live with them in kindness.”

When this verse was revealed, the Prophet explained “بِٱلْمَعْرُوفِ” (in kindness) by advising men to treat their wives with respect and kindness. He said:

“The best of you are those who are best to their wives.”^[12]

Contextualizing Revelations

1. Context of Revelation (Asbab al-Nuzul):

‘لَّيْسَ ٱلْبِرَّ أَن تُوَلُّوا۟ وُجُوهَكُمْ قِبَلَ ٱلْمَشْرِقِ وَٱلْمَغْرِبِ’ Quran [2:177]

“Righteousness is not that you turn your faces toward the east or the west, but [true] righteousness is in one who believes in Allah, the Last Day, the Angels, the Book, and the Prophets…”

When this verse was revealed, the Companions were concerned about the correct direction of prayer. The Prophet explained that true righteousness is not about the direction of prayer but about one’s faith and actions, clarifying:

“Righteousness is in good character, and sin is what wavers in your heart and you do not want people to know about it.”^[13]

Clarification of General Statements

1. Clarifying Ambiguous Verses:’وَكُلُوا۟ وَٱشْرَبُوا۟ حَتَّىٰ يَتَبَيَّنَ لَكُمُ ٱلْخَيْطُ ٱلْأَبْيَضُ مِنَ ٱلْخَيْطِ ٱلْأَسْوَدِ’ Quran [2:187] “And eat and drink until the white thread of dawn becomes distinct to you from the black thread [of night].”When this verse was revealed, some Companions took this literally and tied white and black threads to determine the start of fasting. The Prophet clarified that it meant the white and black of dawn, as explained:”It is your whiteness and blackness of dawn.”^[14]

Illustrating the Depth of Verses

1. Deeper Meanings and Implications:

‘يَـٰٓأَيُّهَا ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوا۟ لَا تَسْأَلُوا۟ عَنْ أَشْيَآءَ إِن تُبْدَ لَكُمْ تَسُؤْكُمْ’ Quran [5:101]

“O, you who have believed, do not ask about things which, if they are shown to you, will distress you.”

The Prophet advised the Companions to avoid excessive questioning that could lead to hardship. He said:

“Allah has enjoined certain obligations, so do not neglect them; He has forbidden certain things, so do not commit them; He has laid down certain limits, so do not transgress them; and He has remained silent about certain things out of mercy for you, not out of forgetfulness, so do not search for them.”^[15]

Practical Application of Verses

1. Practical Guidance:

‘يَـٰٓأَيُّهَا ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوا۟ إِذَا نُودِىَ لِلصَّلَوٰةِ مِن يَوْمِ ٱلْجُمُعَةِ فَٱسْعَوْا۟ إِلَىٰ ذِكْرِ ٱللَّهِ’

“O, you who have believed, when [the adhan] is called for the prayer on the day of Jumu’ah [Friday], then proceed to the remembrance of Allah…” Quran [62:9]

When this verse was revealed, the Prophet emphasized the importance of leaving trade and attending the Jumu’ah prayer, reinforcing communal worship. He said:

“The best day on which the sun has risen is Friday; on it, Adam was created.”^[16]

Addressing Misunderstandings

1. Correcting Misinterpretations:

When some people misunderstand the verse:

‘ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوا۟ وَلَمْ يَلْبِسُوٓا۟ إِيمَـٰنَهُم بِظُلْمٍ’

“Those who believe and do not mix their belief with injustice…” Quran [6:82]

People thought it meant any form of sin, the Prophet clarified that “ظُلْمٍ” referred specifically to shirk, as he explained:

“It is not as you all think, it is only shirk (that is meant by ظلم here). Have you not heard what Luqman said to his son: ‘Verily, shirk is a great ظلم (wrongdoing)?'”^[17]

Historical and Situational Context

1. Revealing Historical Contexts:

When the verse was revealed during the farewell pilgrimage;

‘ٱلْيَوْمَ أَكْمَلْتُ لَكُمْ دِينَكُمْ’ Quran [5:3]

The Prophet ﷺ inquired on the occasion of Hujtul wida: If you are going to be asked about me, what will you say? The Companions said: We bear witness that you (PBUH) preached, conveyed the message, and fulfilled the right of benevolence.

Hearing this, the Prophet (PBUH) raised his index finger towards the sky and bowed to the people, and said three times: O Allah, be a witness, O Allah, be a witness, O Allah, be a witness.^[18]

1. Encouraging Tafakkur (Reflection):

When the verse was revealed:

‘إِنَّ فِى خَلْقِ ٱلسَّمَـٰوَٰتِ وَٱلْأَرْضِ وَٱخْتِلَـٰفِ ٱلَّيْلِ وَٱلنَّهَارِ لَءَايَـٰتٍ لِّأُو۟لِى ٱلْأَلْبَـٰبِ’ Quran [3:190]

“Indeed, in the creation of the heavens and the earth and the alternation of the night and the day are signs for those of understanding.”

The Prophet emphasized the importance of pondering over the creation of the heavens and the earth, encouraging the Companions to reflect deeply on Allah’s signs. He often recited this verse during his night prayers, as mentioned in the Hadith:

“The Prophet recited these verses when he got up to pray at night.”^[19]

Ibn Mas’ood’s Dedication

Ibn Masud was one of the earliest converts to Islam and was known for his profound knowledge of the Quran. He said:

“By Allah, besides whom there is no other god, there is no surah in the Quran except that I know where it was revealed, and there is no verse except that I know the reason for its revelation. If anyone knew more about the Quran than I do and I could reach him, I would travel to seek that knowledge.”^[20]

Contributions of ibn Masud:

1. Teaching: He taught the Quran and its meanings extensively, influencing many later scholars. His student, Alqamah ibn Qays, became a prominent scholar in Kufa.
2. Recitation: The Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) specifically praised his recitation, saying:Narrated Aisha: The Prophet said, Such a person as recites the Qur’an and masters it by heart, will be with the noble righteous scribes (in Heaven). And such a person exerts himself to learn the Qur’an by heart, and recites it with great difficulty, will have a double reward.^[21]

Ibn Abbas’s Dedication;

Ibn Abbas was known as “Tarjuman al-Quran” (Interpreter of the Quran). He was a cousin of the Prophet and was highly regarded for his deep understanding of the Quran.

Contributions:

1. Tafsir: Ibn Abbas’s explanations of the Quran were compiled by his students and later became foundational for many tafsir works. His Tafsir has been transmitted through various chains, such as that of Mujahid, Ikrimah, and Ata’ ibn Abi Rabah.
2. Hadith: Ibn Abbas narrated numerous Hadiths that provided context for Quranic verses. For instance, he narrated the explanation of the verse:

‘إِذَا جَآءَ نَصْرُ ٱللَّهِ وَٱلْفَتْحُ’

“When the victory of Allah has come and the conquest,” Quran [110:1]

He said; it indicated the nearing of the Prophet’s death.^[22]

Umar ibn Al-Khattab’s Dedication;

Umar ibn Al-Khattab was the second Caliph of Islam and was known for his just and strong leadership. He deeply engaged with the Quran and often sought to understand its deeper meanings.

Contributions:

1. Consultations with Ibn Abbas: Umar frequently consulted Ibn Abbas for explanations of Quranic verses, highlighting the importance of tafsir. An example is his inquiry about the verse:

‘إِنَّا أَعْطَيْنَاكَ ٱلْكَوْثَرَ’

“Indeed, We have granted you, [O Muhammad], al-Kawthar.” Quran [108:1]

Ibn Abbas explained that “al-Kawthar” refers to a river in Paradise.^[23]

1. Implementation of Quranic Principles: Umar’s caliphate was marked by his implementation of Quranic principles in governance and justice, ensuring the laws were aligned with Islamic teachings.

Aisha’s Dedication;

Aisha, the wife of the Prophet, was one of the most knowledgeable Companions regarding the Quran and Hadith. She provided significant insights into many Quranic revelations.

Contributions:

1. Narration of Contexts: Aisha narrated the context of several revelations, such as explaining the background of the verse:

‘وَإِذْ تَقُولُ لِلَّذِيٓ أَنعَمَ ٱللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَأَنعَمْتَ عَلَيْهِ أَمْسِكْ عَلَيْكَ زَوْجَكَ وَٱتَّقِ ٱللَّهَ’ Quran [33:37]

“And [remember, O Muhammad], when you said to the one on whom Allah bestowed favor and you bestowed favor, ‘Keep your wife and fear Allah,’…” involving Zayd ibn Harithah and Zaynab bint Jahsh.^[24]

1. Teaching: She taught many students, including Urwah ibn Zubayr and Al-Qasim ibn Muhammad, who transmitted her knowledge to future generations.

Abdullah ibn Umar’s Dedication;

Abdullah ibn Umar was known for his strict adherence to the Sunnah and his deep engagement with the Quran.

Contributions:

1. Narration of Revelation Contexts: Abdullah ibn Umar narrated the gradual prohibition of alcohol, explaining the verse:’يَـٰٓأَيُّهَا ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوا۟ لَا تَقْرَبُوا۟ ٱلصَّلَوٰةَ وَأَنتُمْ سُكَـٰرَىٰ حَتَّىٰ تَعْلَمُوا۟ مَا تَقُولُونَ’ Quran [4:43]

“O, you who have believed, do not approach prayer while you are intoxicated until you know what you are saying…”

He narrated that the prophet said; Allah has cursed wine, its drinker, its server, its buyer, its preserver, the one for who conveys it and the one to whom it is conveyed.^[25]

1. Practice: He meticulously followed the Prophet’s actions, ensuring that his practices were in line with the Quran and Sunnah, such as performing Hajj multiple times and documenting the Prophet’s practices during it.

Ali ibn Abi Talib’s Dedication;

Ali ibn Abi Talib was known for his wisdom and deep understanding of the Quran. He was the fourth Caliph and a close relative of the Prophet.

Ali’s Challenge

‘Ali ibn Abi Talib told his students, “Ask me about the Book of Allah, for there is no verse in it but I know whether it was revealed by night or by day, on the plains or in the mountains.^[26]

Contributions:

1. Explanation of Verses:

Abdul Malik bin Abi Sulaiman says; I asked Atta Was there anyone among the companions of the prophet more knowledgeable than Ali? He said; No, by God I do not know anyone other than him (Ali ibn Abi Talib).^[27]

1. Solving complicated problems;

Umar bin Al-Khattab used to seek refuge from Allah from the complicated problems whose solution was not found by Ali ibn Abi Talib.^[28]

Saeed bin Jubiar said; that when we get proof of something from Ali ibn Abi Talib then we do not turn to anyone else.^[29]

Numerous companions were renowned for their profound understanding of the Quran such as;

1. The Four Khulafa ar-Rashidun
2. Abdullah ibn Masood (d. 32 A.H.)
3. Abdullah ibn Abbas (d. 68 A.H.)
4. Ubay ibn Ka’b (d. 29 A.H.)
5. Zayd ibn Thaabit (d. 45 A.H.)
6. Abu Musa al-Ashari (d. 44 A.H.)
7. Abdullah ibn Zubayr (d. 73 A.H.)
8. Maaz bin Jabal (d. 18 A.H.)
9. Aishah (d. 57 A.H.)

The generation that came after the Companions, the Successors, studied eagerly under the wise guardianship of the Companions. These students took over their predecessors’ responsibilities and passed this knowledge faithfully on to the next generation.

Ibn Abbas’s students

1. Sa’eed ibn Jubayr (d. 95 A.H.)
2. Mujaahid ibn Jabr (d. 100 A.H.)
3. Ikrimah al-Barbaree (d. 104 A.H.)
4. Taawoos ibn Kaysaan (d. 106 A.H.)
5. Ata’ ibn Rabah (d. 114 A.H.)

They were all famous in Makkah.

Ubay ibn Kaab’s students

1. Zayd ibn Aslam (d. 63 A.H.)
2. Abu al-‘Aliyah (d. 90 A.H.)
3. Muhammad ibn Ka’b (d. 120 A.H.)

They were the teachers of Madinah; and in Iraq,

Abdullah ibn Masood’s students

1. Alqamah ibn Qays (d. 60 A.H.)
2. Masrooq ibn al-Ajda’ (d. 63 A.H.)
3. Al-Hasan al-Basree (d. 110 A.H)
4. Qataadah as-Sadoosee (d. 110 A.H.)

Makkah, Madinah, Kufah, and Basra, were the leading centers of all the sciences of Islam, including Tafseer and Uloom al-Quran.

History of Preservation

The compilation of the Quran is a unique phenomenon that is peculiar to Islamic history, for no other religious book can claim to be anywhere near as authentic as the Quran. Jews, Christians, and Hindus are just a few examples of religious groups whose texts are no longer in existence, whereas the Quran has both text and meaning preserved.

Allah has taken it upon Himself to guard it and protect it, for He says,

اِنَّا نَحۡنُ نَزَّلۡنَا الذِّكۡرَ وَاِنَّا لَهٗ لَحٰـفِظُوۡنَ‏

«Verily, We have sent down this memory (the Quran), and We are of

a surety going to protect it (from tampering) Quran [15:9]

لَا تُحَرِّكۡ بِهٖ لِسَانَكَ لِتَعۡجَلَ بِهٖؕ‏ —اِنَّ عَلَيۡنَا جَمۡعَهٗ وَقُرۡاٰنَهٗۚ ۖ‏،

Do not move your tongue with haste concerning it! It is for Us to collect it and give you the ability to recite it» Quran [75:17]

The only divinely revealed text that Allah has promised to preserve is the Quran. The responsibility of preserving earlier Scriptures had been placed upon its recipients, without any divine aid. Allah mentions, concerning the earlier Scriptures,

والرَّبَّانِيُّوۡنَ وَالۡاَحۡبَارُ بِمَا اسۡتُحۡفِظُوۡا مِنۡ كِتٰبِ اللّٰهِ وَكَانُوۡا عَلَيۡهِ شُهَدَآءَ​​ ۚ

« … and the rabbis and the priests (judged according to their Scriptures), for

to them was entrusted the protection of the Book of Allah, and they were wit-

nesses to it … » Quran [5:44]

and it is also mentioned that the Scriptures of Jews and Christians were changed.

Whether you are a Muslim or not, if you study the history of the Quran and present copies, you will agree with Muslims today that it is the same Quran as it was during the Prophet’s time.

Let’s start by looking at the history of the Quran’s preservation, followed by an examination of its transmission method and the written copies from the time of Muhammad (PBUH) to the present day.

We will divide the history of the Quran’s preservation into three sections:

• First; during the life of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH),
• Second; the compilation of the Quran by Abu Bakr
• Third; the compilation of ‘Uthman.

During the Prophet’s Life

The Prophet was sent to an illiterate nation, and he himself was the unlettered prophet, as the Quran says:

هُوَ الَّذِىۡ بَعَثَ فِى الۡاُمِّيّٖنَ رَسُوۡلًا مِّنۡهُمۡ يَتۡلُوۡا عَلَيۡهِمۡ اٰيٰتِهٖ وَيُزَكِّيۡهِمۡ وَيُعَلِّمُهُمُ الۡكِتٰبَ وَالۡحِكۡمَةَ وَاِنۡ كَانُوۡا مِنۡ قَبۡلُ لَفِىۡ ضَلٰلٍ مُّبِيۡنٍۙ‏

«He is the one Who has sent among the illiterate ones a Messenger from

among themselves, who will recite to them His signs, and purify them,

and teach them the Book, and the Wisdom; and before this, they were in-

deed in manifest error» Quran [62:2]

قُلۡ يٰۤاَيُّهَا النَّاسُ اِنِّىۡ رَسُوۡلُ اللّٰهِ اِلَيۡكُمۡ جَمِيۡعَاْ ۨالَّذِىۡ لَهٗ مُلۡكُ السَّمٰوٰتِ وَالۡاَرۡضِ​ۚ لَاۤ اِلٰهَ اِلَّا هُوَ يُحۡىٖ وَيُمِيۡتُ​ فَاٰمِنُوۡا بِاللّٰهِ وَرَسُوۡلِهِ النَّبِىِّ الۡاُمِّىِّ الَّذِىۡ يُؤۡمِنُ بِاللّٰهِ وَكَلِمٰتِهٖ وَاتَّبِعُوۡهُ لَعَلَّكُمۡ تَهۡتَدُوۡنَ‏

Say, [O Muḥammad], “O mankind, indeed I am the Messenger of Allah to you all, [from Him] to whom belongs the dominion of the heavens and the earth. There is no deity except Him; He gives life and causes death.” So, believe in Allah and His Messenger, the unlettered prophet, who believes in Allah and His words, and follow him that you may be guided. Quran [7:158]

اَ لَّذِيۡنَ يَتَّبِعُوۡنَ الرَّسُوۡلَ النَّبِىَّ الۡاُمِّىَّ

«Those who follow the unlettered prophet … Quran [7:157]

The fact that the Prophet could neither read nor write was meant to be one of the greatest proofs that the Quran was not from him, but rather from the Creator Himself. If Muhammad (PBUH) was illiterate, then from where did he bring forth the literary masterpiece of the Quran? The Quran itself says:

وَمَا كُنۡتَ تَـتۡلُوۡا مِنۡ قَبۡلِهٖ مِنۡ كِتٰبٍ وَّلَا تَخُطُّهٗ بِيَمِيۡنِكَ​ اِذًا لَّارۡتَابَ الۡمُبۡطِلُوۡنَ‏

«Neither did you (O Muhammad (PBUH)) read any book before it (i.e., the revelation of the Quran) nor did you write (any book) with your right hand! In that case, indeed, the followers of falsehood might have doubted» Quran [29:48].

In other words, if the Prophet had been a writer, and one whom the people knew to be an eloquent author, this might have given reason to doubt the Prophet’s claim of prophethood; but since the Prophet was illiterate, and well-known to be so, then such a doubt could not exist!

The Quran consistently refers to itself as kitab (Book) as something written, indicating that it must be placed into written form. Verses were recorded from the earliest stages of Islam, even as the fledgling community suffered innumerable hardships under the wrath of Quraish. The following narration concerning ‘Umar bin al-Khattab, taken just before his conversion to Islam, helps illustrate this point:

One day ‘Umar came out, his sword unsheathed, intending to make for the Prophet and some of his Companions who (he had been told) were gathered in a house at as-Safi. The congregation numbered forty, including women; also present were the Prophet’s uncle Hamza, Abii Bakr, ‘Ali, and others who had not migrated to Ethiopia. Nu‘aim encountered Umar and asked him where he was going. “I am making for Muhammad, the apostate who has split Quraish asunder and mocked their ways, who has insulted their beliefs and their gods, to kill him.” “You only deceive yourself, “Umar,” he replied, “if you suppose that Bani ‘Abd Manaf will allow you to continue treading the earth if you dispose of Muhammad. Is it not better that you return to your family and resolve their affairs?” ‘Umar was taken aback and asked what was the matter with his family. Nu‘aim said, “Your brother-in-law, your nephew Sa‘id, and your sister Fatima have followed Muhammad in his new religion, and it is best that you go and deal with them.” ‘Umar hurried to his brother-in-law’s house, where Khabbab was reciting Surah Taha to them from a parchment. At the sound of Umar’s voice, Khabbab hid in a small room, while Fatima took the parchment and placed it under her thigh.^[30]

Beginning of Wahy

The process of preparing the prophet for his role started from the very beginning of his childhood. The presence of Angel Jibree could be perceived from the historical references where the Angel Jibreel started to appear before the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH).^[31]

The first appearance of angel Jibreel was in the home of Halima bint Abi Zwaib, where the incidence of the splitting of the heart took place.^[32]

Before the revelation, the signs of prophethood started in the form of true dreams, as reported by Ayesha; she said, the commencement of the divine revelation to the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) started in the form of righteous dreams in his sleep. Every dream of mine came true like a bright day.^[33]

In that time, the prophet used to go to the cave of Hira with some food and water in solitude to worship Allah continuously for some days and nights, then he would come back to his wife Khadijah to take some food and water again for further days and nights.

This was the time when suddenly one day the angel Jibreel descended upon the prophet, as reported in a hadith; the prophet said this when he was in the cave of Hira, and the angel asked him to read it. The prophet replied I do not know how to read. The Prophet further added that the angel caught me mightily and pressed hard so that I could not bear it and then the angel released me. (The same argument happened three times.).

Then the angel said;

اِقۡرَاۡ بِاسۡمِ رَبِّكَ الَّذِىۡ خَلَقَ​ۚ‏—خَلَقَ الۡاِنۡسَانَ مِنۡ عَلَقٍ​ۚ‏—اِقۡرَاۡ وَرَبُّكَ الۡاَكۡرَمُۙ‏—الَّذِىۡ عَلَّمَ بِالۡقَلَمِۙ‏—عَلَّمَ الۡاِنۡسَانَ مَا لَمۡ يَعۡلَمۡؕ‏

Read in the name of your Lord—Who created man from a clot of congealed blood—Recite: and your Lord is Most Generous—Who taught by the pen—taught man what he did not know. Quran [96:1-5]

This was the very first revelation that the prophet received from the angel Jibreel. The Prophet was held in fear and returned to his wife, Khadija, trembling and asking her to cover him. Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) was in a condition of continuous terror, and he said to Khadija, I do not know what is wrong with me; I fear that something might happen to me.

The wife of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), Khadija, consoled him with her kind words and said; Fear not! I swear by Allah that He will not disgrace you, as you are kind to your close ones, you speak the truth, you help the poor, and you are bountiful to your guests.

The beloved wife of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) took the responsibility to calm down the prophet, for this purpose, she took the prophet to her cousin, whose name was Warqa ibn Nawfal.

He was an old, generous man who converted to Christianity before Islam, and he knew the language of the holy scriptures (Torah and Injeel), and he used to translate those holy scriptures into Arabic.

After listening to his cousin Khadijah, he asked the prophet, What do you see, O my nephew? The prophet explained everything that happened in the cave of Hira. Warqa said; This is the same entity whom Allah sent to the prophet Moses. Warqa said I wish I were young and could support you when your people turn you out. He added that every man who came with the same message as you faced these difficulties from their people.

But after a few days, Warqa died and could not live, and the divine revelation to Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) paused for some time. The prophet felt so grieved and overwhelmed that several times Jibreel would descend to calm down and support the prophet of Allah.^[34]

This is how the first revelation was revealed. The importance of the first revelation could be observed from the verses where the orders of reading were given to an unlettered man in the sandy dunes of Arab in the cave of Hira.

Every prophet was bestowed with miracles related to the issues of their times. Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) was bestowed with the miracle of rhetoric and fluency, The eloquence of the Quran was a challenge for the Arabs and the same challenge stands until the day of judgment.

As reported by Abu Hurairah;

The prophet said; every prophet was given miracles, because of which people believed them, but I was given the miracle of divine revelation.^[35]

The Quran itself is a testimony that no human could have penned it due to its eloquence and rhetoric.

Teaching The Quran

History recorded the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) as an unlettered person, like the vast majority of people during his time and his area, from which we can conclude that Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) did not know how to read and write.

According to Bukhari and other sources, the companion and cousin of the prophet Ali ibn Abi Talib wrote the treaty of Hudaibiyah.^[36]

The first revelation is proof that Allah commanded a reading policy to educate not only himself but also the populace at the time.

The first revelation stated that;

اِقۡرَاۡ بِاسۡمِ رَبِّكَ الَّذِىۡ خَلَق

Read! In the name of your Lord, who created! Quran [96:1]

After the revelation of this order by Allah, the prophet of Allah took every step to spread the importance and rise of the spirit of education to his companions.

As reported by Abdullah ibn e Mas’ud and Abu Hurairah;

The prophet said, Acquire knowledge and impart it to the people.^[37]

Another hadith reported by Abu Hurairah;

The Prophet said; whoever takes a path upon which to obtain knowledge, Allah makes the path of paradise easy for him.^[38]

On the other hand, Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) warned those who had the intention of hiding knowledge to themselves only,

The prophet said that those people; who are asked about something and that person hide the knowledge would be punished with a bridle of fire placed around him on the day of resurrection.^[39]

All of these commands resulted in growing Madinah as a city of Knowledge, wisdom, and command. The policies of the education system were developed at the very beginning of the state of Madinah.

Students of Suffah (enclosure);

Ubadah bin Samit was one of the companions of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), He used to teach the people of Suffah without any cost, as free education was provided for everyone, and the Prophet of Allah strictly commanded him not to accept anything from the students of Suffah.^[40]

Suffah was an enclosure that was connected to the prophet’s mosque and provided shelter and food to the poor. It also served as a regular residential school for the companions of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). It was also a learning center for day scholars and visitors in large numbers.

The prophet of Allah required the literate people at the state level to communicate with other heads of state.

Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) commanded Zaid bin Sabit to learn Hebrew.^[41] Zaid bin Sabit knew a lot of other languages, like Persian, Greek, and Ethiopian, and he was the one who used to read and write letters for the prophet.

This atmosphere of spreading and seeking knowledge made the world look to them for guidance.

Incentives For Education of Quran

The prophet of Allah practically created an atmosphere of seeking knowledge and spared no part for ignorance among his companions. The mindset of gaining knowledge was important to understand the wisdom of the Quran. That is why seeking knowledge of the Quran and spreading it to the people was above all the other rewards. Even knowledge without the wisdom of the Quran is of no use.

Learning the Quran;

Reported by Uthman bin Affan:

The best among you is the one who learns the Quran and teaches it to the people.^[42]

Reported by Ibn e Masud;

The prophet said that if anyone recites a letter from the book of Allah, then he will be credited with a good deed, i do not say that Alif, Lam, and Meem are one letter, but Alif is a letter, Lam is a letter, and Meem is a letter.^[43]

These two references from the Hadith show the importance of learning, reading, and teaching the Quran. Every letter of the Quran contains virtues and blessings for its readers.

The Quran is a crucial part of prayer, and it was necessary for the Muslims to learn it and lead their fellow Muslims in prayer, At that time, among the companions, the one who learned the Quran was considered to have a great level of wisdom and virtue.

As reported by Anas bin Malik:

The person who has memorized or learned the Quran the most will lead in the prayer.^[44]

In another Hadith report, Amr bin Salima al-Jamri recounts that the people of his tribe came to the prophet and embraced Islam. Before departure, they asked the prophet, who would lead us in the prayer. The prophet replied to the one who knows the Quran the most.^[45]

During the illness of the prophet, Abu Bakr was ordered by the prophet to lead the prayer in his absence.^[46] It shows that the prophet considered Abu Bakr one of the people who knew the Quran.

Learning the Quran and seeking wisdom through its teachings gives one the privilege of gaining higher ranks in this world and hereafter.

The knowledge of the Quran is the basis for appointing a caliph for the Muslims. This criterion was followed by the companions of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) after his death, and Abu Bakr was appointed as the first caliph of the Muslim world. The book of Allah is a scale to measure the Taqwa and wisdom of a person.

Umar bin al-Khattab reported that the prophet said; with this book, Allah exalts some people and lowers others.^[47]

And the book of Allah is such a precious treasure that every Muslim should struggle to gain wealth from this book by pondering over it, it is legitimate for the people to compete in gaining the wisdom of this book.

Narrated Ibn Mas’ud: I heard the Prophet saying, There is no envy except in two: a person whom Allah has given wealth and he spends it in the right way, and a person whom Allah has given wisdom (i.e., religious knowledge) and he gives his decisions accordingly and teaches it to the others.^[48]

Memorizing was the massive source of preserving the Quran so during the writing process of Quranic scripture, people were motivated to memorize the Quran. Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) gave glad tidings even for those who were facing difficulties in memorizing the book of Allah.

People who memorized the Quran by heart were called Huffaz, which means the preservers of the Holy Book. They were promised tremendous rewards, As reported by Abdullah bin Amr, the prophet said; The one who was devoted to the book of Allah will be told on the day of judgment to recite and ascend, and to recite with the same care he practiced while he was in the world, for he will reach his abode in the heavens with the last verse he recites.^[49]

The Quran was a source of purifying the hearts of those who were prone to idleness from past generations. People were prompted to learn the Quran and seek guidance through it to leave the ignorance of Jahiliya.

As reported by Ibn Abbas, the prophet said; A person who has nothing in his heart from the Quran is like a ruined house.^[50]

The prophet also forbade memorizing the Quran and later forgetting it, and he advised people to read it frequently.

As reported by Abu Musa al-Ashari, the prophet said, Keep refreshing the knowledge of Quran; I swear by Him in Whose hand is the life of Muhammad that it is more liable to escape than hobbled camels, (forgetting the Quran).^[51]

The following narration demonstrates the care that the Prophet took in teaching the Quran: “Whenever a person immigrated to Madinah, the Prophet would assign him to one of us so that we could teach him the Quran,” according to Ubaadah ibn as-Saamit. Eventually, the masjid became so noisy because of all of this recitation of the Quran that the Prophet ordered us to lower our voices so as not to distort the meaning (by mixing all of these verses).”^[52] Therefore, the Prophet would ensure that each new Muslim had a teacher to teach him the Quran.

Such was the concern of the Prophet in teaching the Quran to the new Muslims that he would even send companions to other cities to ensure that the Muslims in those cities could memorize the Quran. Even before the hijrah, the Prophet sent two companions, Ibn Umm Maktum and Mus’ab ibn ‘Umayr, to teach the Muslims of Madinah the Quran. After the hijrah, the Prophet sent Maaz bin Jabal to Makkah to teach the Quran to those who had not been able to perform the hijrah.^[53]

Writing the scripture during the life of the prophet;

During the later periods, the Prophet also made sure that the Quran was written down, and not just memorized. Al-Bukhaaree reports the following story:

When it was revealed:

لَا يَسۡتَوِى الۡقَاعِدُوۡنَ مِنَ الۡمُؤۡمِنِيۡنَ غَيۡرُ اُولِى الضَّرَرِ وَالۡمُجَاهِدُوۡنَ فِىۡ سَبِيۡلِ اللّٰهِ

«Not equal are those believers who sit at home and those that strive in the

cause of Allah … > Quran [4:95]

The Prophet said, ‘Call Zayd ibn Thaabit for me, and tell him to bring the ink-pot and the scapula bone (i.e., paper and pen).’ When Zayd came, the Prophet told him, ‘Write: “Not equal are those believers who sit at home and those … (to the end of the verse)”.^[54]

In another report, Zayd narrates, “I used to write the revelation for the Prophet while he dictated to me. When I finished [writing], he would tell me, ‘Read [what you wrote]’ so I read it. If something was missing, he would fix it.”^[55]

The Companions also had their copies of the Quran. The Prophet had commanded the Companions, “Do not write anything from me except the Quran. Whoever writes anything besides the Quran should burn it.”^[56] However, this command was later abrogated by him, for he later allowed the Companions to write down hadith also.^[57] So common were these Mushafs that the Prophet had to issue an order prohibiting the Companions from traveling to enemy territories with copies of the Quran, for fear that these Mushafs might fall into enemy hands and thus be disrespected.^[58]

Those Companions who were famous for their Mushafs were Ubay ibn Ka’ab, ‘Abdullah ibn Mas’ood, ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab, ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib, and some of the wives of the Prophet, among them ‘Aishah and Hafsa. Some sources have listed over fifteen companions who were recorded to have written down most of the Quran.^[59] These were not complete copies of the Quran, nor was the arrangement of the Surahs in them the same as the later arrangement. For example, Ibn Mas’ood had one hundred and six Surahs, and the order of the Surahs was not the order that is present today. Ubay ibn Ka’ab also had less than one hundred and fourteen Surahs, and, in addition to the Surahs that he had, the prayer for qunoot (A prayer that is meant to be recited in the Witr prayer) and a hadith are also found.

‘Scholars’ who try to cast doubts on the authenticity of the Quran use such narrations to try to prove that these additions were verses’ that were left out of the Quran, but it should be remembered that these copies were for personal use, and as such, the Companions could have written any knowledge besides the Quran that they wished to preserve. Az-Zarqaanee writes:

To summarize, some Companions who used to write the Quran in personal Mushafs sometimes wrote material that was not a part of the Quran. This material might be interpretative clauses for certain obscure phrases in the Quran, prayers (duas), or other similar things. They were fully aware that these additions were not part of the Quran. However, because of the scarcity of writing materials, and since the Mushafs were for personal use, they wrote these additions in the Mushaf since there was no fear of them mixing the additions that they had written with the text of the Quran. Those people of little intellect fail to take these factors into account and assume that these additions were a part of the Quran, even though this was not the case.^[60]

It was the practice of the Prophet to recite the Quran to the Angel Jibreel every year, during the month of Ramadan, and Jibreel would also recite it back to him. Faatimah, the daughter of the Prophet, reported that the Prophet told her, “Jibreel used to recite the whole Quran to me every Ramadan, but this year he has recited it to me twice. I do not see (any explanation for this) except that my time (of death) is near.”^[61] In another narration, ‘Aishah added, “The Prophet used to meet Jibreel every night of Ramadan and recite to him the Quran.”^[62] Therefore, the Prophet used to recite the Quran to Jibreel and used to hear Jibreel’s recitation also, and the year that he died, he recited the Quran twice to Jibreel and heard it from Jibreel twice. During this last recitation, Zayd ibn Thaabit was present.

The Prophet (s) did not compile the Quran in one book during his lifetime, nor did he command the Companions to do so. He made sure that the Quran was written down in its totality, but he did not order for it to be compiled between two covers. There are several reasons for this:

1. There was no pressing need during the lifetime of the Prophet to compile the whole Quran in one book since the Quran was not in any danger of being lost. Numerous companions had memorized all of it, and each companion had memorized various portions of it. We will discuss this topic in more detail later.
2. During the lifetime of the Prophet, the Quran used to be continually revealed. Therefore, it would not have been feasible to compile all of it in one book since it had not been completely revealed yet. The last verse was revealed only nine days before the death of the Prophet.
3. The arrangement of the verses and surahs was not chronological. Verses that were revealed years after the hijrah could be placed, by the command of the Prophet, amid Makkan verses, and vice versa. Therefore, the Prophet could not have compiled the Quran in the correct order until all its verses had been revealed.
4. Some revelations used to be a part of the Quran, but Allah abrogated their recitation. During the lifetime of the Prophet, this abrogation could occur at any time; therefore, the Wahy (Revelation) needed to be terminated before the Quran be compiled.

To summarize, when the Prophet passed away, the entire Quran had been memorized by many of the Companions and existed in written form, but it had not been compiled between two covers. Rather, it was scattered in loose fragments that were owned by different people. Some Companions also had substantial (yet incomplete) copies of the Quran.

The First Compilation

Following the Prophet’s death, his closest followers chose Abu Bakr as their leader. His first challenge was dealing with apostasy. During the Prophet’s life, some individuals converted to Islam mainly for political benefits. Once the Prophet passed away, they rejected the new Islamic leadership. Many of these individuals pledged their loyalty to self-proclaimed prophets. To unify the Muslim community, Abu Bakr launched a series of conflicts known as the ‘Wars of Apostasy.’

During one of these battles, the Battle of Yamama (12 A.H.), around seventy Companions who had memorized the Quran were martyred. The death of such a large number of qurraa’ (memorizers of the Quran) alarmed ‘Umar, and he went to Abu Bakr and said, “Many of the memorizers of the Quran have died, and I am scared lest more die in later battles. This might lead to the loss of the Quran unless you collect it.” ‘Umar not only realized the danger of this great loss but also proposed a solution.

Abu Bakr replied, “How can I do that which the Prophet did not do?” Abu Bakr, the one whom the Prophet trusted the most in all his affairs, could not even think of undertaking a project that the Prophet had not done, nor ordered to be done. He was worried that such a project might be considered an innovation in religion.

But ‘Umar continued to convince him, exhorting him of the merits of such an idea, and proving to him that such a project was in no way an innovation. ‘Umar realized that this act did not qualify as an innovation in the religion, since the compilation of the Quran was not a religious act per se, but rather an act that was of general benefit (maslaha) to the Muslims. He continued to convince Abu Bakr until Abu Bakr understood Umar’s arguments and agreed to the project. They both decided to put the Companion Zayd bin Thaabit in charge of collecting the entire Quran in one manuscript. Abu Bakr told him, “You are an intelligent young man, and we do not doubt you. You used to write the revelation for the Prophet, so we want you to collect the Quran.”^[63]

They chose Zayd because he was the person best suited for the job, for the following reasons:

1. Zayd ibn Thaabit served as the Prophet Muhammad’s main scribe. This role was so significant that Abu Bakr remarked, “You used to write the revelation for the Prophet.” This is further evidenced by a narration in al-Bukhaaree, where the Prophet specifically asked for Zayd. After the Prophet’s death, some people approached Zayd and requested him to share something from the Prophet. He replied, “And what can I narrate to you? I used to be a neighbor of the Prophet, and whenever he received revelation, he would call me to write it.”^[64] Hence, Zayd was the person entrusted by the Prophet with recording the Quran.
2. During the Prophet’s lifetime, Zayd collected the Quran. Anas ibn Maalik mentioned that only four people had collected the Quran before the Prophet’s death: Ubay ibn Ka’ab, Mu’adh ibn Jabal, Zayd ibn Thaabit, and Abu Zayd.^[65]
3. Being younger than many of the Companions, Zayd ibn Thaabit had a sharper memory. He recounted that at eleven years old, shortly after the Prophet arrived in Madinah, he was brought before the Prophet. The people said, “O Messenger of Allah, this is one of the boys of Banee an-Najjaar, and he has memorized seventeen surahs.” Zayd recited to the Prophet, who was very pleased with his recitation.^[66]
4. Zayd was also present during the Prophet’s final recitation to Jibreel in Ramadan before the Prophet’s passing. According to the well-known successor, Abu ‘Abd ar-Rahmaan as-Sulami (d. 70 A.H.), Zayd’s presence at this significant event led Abu Bakr to rely on him for the Quran’s initial compilation. Later, Uthman assigned him the crucial task of overseeing the second compilation.^[67]
5. Zayd ibn Thaabit was highly esteemed among the Companions for his exceptional knowledge of the Quran’s recitation. Sulayman ibn Yasaar (d. 100 A.H.) noted that neither ‘Umar nor ‘Uthman held anyone in higher regard than Zayd concerning the laws of inheritance and Quranic recitation. ‘Aamir ibn Sharaheel ash-Sha’bee (d. 103 A.H.) remarked that Zayd’s mastery of Quranic recitation and inheritance laws made him a dominant figure in these fields. His prominence was such that ‘Umar, ‘Uthman, and ‘Ali, all entrusted him with significant judicial and recitational duties in Madinah, a role he fulfilled until he died in 45 A.H. Upon his passing, Ibn ‘Umar expressed his respect by saying, “May Allah have mercy on him! He was a scholar among the people.” Despite sending scholars to various regions, Umar kept Zayd in Madinah to oversee judicial matters for its residents.^[68]

It was no surprise that Abu Bakr and ‘Umar saw Zayd ibn Thaabit as the right person for the significant task of compiling the Quran. Zayd had all the necessary qualities for this monumental job, though he was initially reluctant. Only after both Abu Bakr and ‘Umar persuaded him did he agree, remarking, “It would have been easier for me to move a mountain than do what they asked of me.”

Zayd began by gathering the various fragments of the Quran from pieces of wood and people’s memories. He required at least two individuals, aside from himself, who had directly learned the verses from the Prophet, and one written copy of the verse made under the Prophet’s supervision, to ensure its inclusion in the final compilation. ‘Umar ibn Al-Khattab announced in the mosque, “Whoever has learned any Quran from the Prophet, let him bring it forth.”^[69]

The people brought their scraps and parchments of the Quran to Zayd ibn Thaabit. Abu Bakr instructed them, “Sit at the door of the mosque. Whoever brings you two witnesses (for a verse), then write it down.” Some scholars interpret this to mean two witnesses and two written copies were needed.

Zayd reports, “I collected the Quran, until I found the last two verses of Surah at-Taubah with Khuzaymah ibn Thaabit al-Ansaaree:

لَـقَدۡ جَآءَكُمۡ رَسُوۡلٌ مِّنۡ اَنۡفُسِكُمۡ

«There has come to you, from among yourselves, a Messenger …~ Quran |9:128|

I found these verses with him only.”^[70] The report about Khuzaymah does not imply he was the only one who heard the verse from the Prophet, but rather that he was the only one who had a parchment with the verses written on it. When Khuzaymah presented his parchment, ‘Uthman ibn ‘Affaan said, “I testify that these verses have been revealed by Allah!”^[71]

Zayd’s strict criteria ensured the Quran’s authenticity. Despite having memorized the entire Quran, he required at least two other memorizers of each verse and a written copy made under the Prophet’s supervision. The story of Khuzaymah indicates Zayd was searching for the last two verses of Surah at-Tawbah. Though Zayd had heard them from the Prophet, no one else had provided written copies until Khuzaymah did. Another narration adds, “I could not find a verse that I used to hear from the Prophet until I found it with a person from the Ansaar, and I did not find it with anybody else.”

مِنَ الۡمُؤۡمِنِيۡنَ رِجَالٌ صَدَقُوۡا مَا عَاهَدُوا اللّٰهَ عَلَيۡهِ

“among the Believers are men who have fulfilled their covenant with

Allah» Quran [33:23],

so, I put it in its proper Surah.”^[72] This narration also proves the fact that Zayd knew what was part of the Quran and what was not, since he mentioned that he was searching for a particular verse, and could not find it. It also proves that the arrangement of the verses was known to the Companions, because he put the verse ‘in its proper surah and also proves that now, for the first time, the Quran is in one book. Barely two years after the death of the Prophet, when all of the major Companions were still alive, the Quran had been compiled. The written copy of the Quran was called a Mushaf (literally meaning a collection of loose papers) and remained with Abu Bakr and, after his death, with ‘Umar, then with Hafsah, the daughter of ‘Umar and a wife of the Prophet.

The Mushaf that Abu Bakr ordered to be collected was not meant to be an official copy that the whole ummah had to follow. Rather, it was meant to preserve the Quran in its entirety and ensure that none of its verses were lost. In this, Abu Bakr accomplished a momentous task. ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib remarked, “The person with the greatest rewards with regards to the (compilation) of the Mushaf is Abu Bakr. May Allah’s mercy be on Abu Bakr, he was the first person to compile the Book of Allah.”^[73] The claim by certain Islamic sects that ‘Ali was the first to compile the Quran is shown to be false by a narration from ‘Ali himself. Furthermore, the narration which mentions ‘Ali as being the first is weak.^[74]

There is some difference of opinion over the arrangement of the Surahs in Abu Bakr’s Mushaf. Most scholars think that Abu Bakr’s Mushaf did not concern itself with the proper order of the Surahs, for it was not meant to be an official copy that was binding upon the ummah. Others allege the Surahs were in the same order as that of ‘Uthman.

The ‘Uthmanic Compilation

After the death of Abu Bakr, ‘Umar ibn Al-Khattaab took over the leadership of the Muslims. Under his auspicious caliphate, the territories of the Muslims expanded five-fold what they had been. When he passed away, the Muslims controlled the remnants of the Persian Empire, Egypt, Syria, and parts of the then-defunct Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire. After ‘Umar’s death, ‘Uthman took over the caliphate and continued the great legacy of his two predecessors. The Muslims were successful in waging jihad for the cause of Allah and spreading the religion of Islam. One of the places where this was occurring was in the territories of Armenia and Azerbaijan. Muslims from different parts of the ummah had joined forces to fight against the enemy.

Unfortunately, the Muslims started differing among themselves about the recitation of the Quran. The Muslims from Syria were reciting the Quran differently than the Muslims from Iraq. They began contending with each other, each regarding his recitation superior to his brother’s. These Muslims were not companions and therefore were not trained in the proper manner and etiquette of the recitation of the Quran. One of the companions who was present among them, Hudhayfah ibn al-Yamaan, could not believe what was happening. He advised them to leave this argumentation, but he realized that some action must be taken to prevent this occurrence on a larger scale. He therefore left Azerbaijan for Madinah to report to the caliph ‘Uthman.

“O Commander of the Faithful!” Hudhayfah pleaded to ‘Uthman, “Save this ummah before it disagrees with its Book like the Jews and Christians did before it.”^[75] Hudhayfah told ‘Uthman what had occurred among the new Muslims in Azerbaijan. ‘Uthman, alarmed by this news, convened a gathering of the leading companions. He informed them of what Hudhayfah had told him and requested their advice on this matter. The Companions, in return, asked ‘Uthman what he thought the best plan of action was. ‘Uthman told them his opinion: Official copies of the Quran should be written and sent to all the provinces, and all other copies destroyed so that the ummah would have one standard Quran. Therefore, this standard version would serve to unite the Muslims upon one recitation.

‘Ali ibn Abi Talib said concerning this incident, “O People! Do not say evil of ‘Uthman, but only say good about him. Concerning the burning of the Mushafs, I swear by Allah, that he only did this after he had called all of us. He asked us, ‘What do you think (should be done) concerning these recitations (in Azerbaijan)? For it has reached me that each party is claiming that their recitation is better, and this (attitude) might lead to disbelief.’ We asked him, ‘What do you suggest we do?’ He responded, ‘I think we should consolidate the Muslims on one Mushaf so that there would not be any disagreements or disunity.’ We said, ‘Verily, this idea of yours is an excellent idea.’^[76] All of the companions approved of Uthman’s action.

Therefore, after the Companions agreed to his idea, he requested Hafsah, the daughter of ‘Umar ibn Al-Khattab, to loan him the Mushaf that Abu Bakr had ordered to be compiled, which she did. He then chose a committee of four people, namely Zayd ibn Thaabit, ‘Abdullah ibn az-Zubayr, Sa’eed ibn al-‘Aas, and ‘Abd al-Rahmaan ibn al-Haarith, to rewrite the Mushaf of Abu Bakr. He chose Zayd ibn Thaabit for the same reasons that Abu Bakr had done before him, and Sa’id ibn al-As was known for his knowledge of the Arabic language. Imam adh-Dhahabi (d. 748 A.H.) said, “Sa’eed ibn al-‘Aas was one of the members of the committee whom ‘Uthman chose to write the Mushaf, due to his eloquence, and because his (Arabic) style was very similar to the Prophet’s.”^[77] The other two members were respectable Companions, knowledgeable of the Arabic language and the Quran.

Apart from Zayd, the other three committee members were from the Quraysh. This was done on purpose; ‘Uthman told them, “If you (three) and Zayd differ (on how to spell a word), then spell it in the dialect of the Quraysh, for verily it was revealed in their dialect.”^[78] ‘Uthman said this in response to a difference that arose among them concerning the writing of the word ‘Tabut’ (in 2:248): should they write the word in the Quresh style of Tabut (i.e with taa marbuta) or the Madni style of Tabuh (i.e with Taa Taneeth)? ‘Uthman answered them that they should write it as Tabut since this was the style of the Quraysh.

This incident shows that the committee consulted the other companions concerning even such minor details as the spellings of certain words. At times, when there was a difference of opinion, they even called that particular scribe (if it happened to be other than Zayd), who had written the verse for the Prophet, so that they could ask him how he had spelled the word.^[79]

After the committee finished its task, ‘Uthman ordered that one copy of this Mushaf be sent to every province, and ordered the governors of each province to burn all the other copies of the Quran in their provinces. This was a drastic step, but it was necessary if the unity of the Muslims was to be preserved. Every Quran written after this time had to conform letter for letter to ‘Uthman’s Mushaf. By his wise decision, ‘Uthman provided a copy of the Quran that would serve as a model for all future Mushafs. And, as ‘Ali pointed out, ‘Uthman did this with

the approval of the Companions. Although there are some reports that initially ‘Abdullah ibn Mas’ood did not agree with ‘Uthman’s decision, it is also reported that he later changed his mind.^[80] According to the famous historian, Ibn Katheer, ‘Uthman wrote to Ibn Mas’ood advising him to follow the consensus of the other Companions, which he agreed to do.^[81] In fact, ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib said, “If I were in charge (of the affairs of the Muslims) when ‘Uthman had been, I would have done the same as he did.”^[82]

Not only did ‘Uthman send the actual Mushafs to each province, but he also sent Quranic reciters to teach the people the correct recitation of the Quran. He kept Zayd ibn Thaabit in Madinah; with the Makkan Mushaf, he sent “Abdullah ibn Saa’ib (d. 63 A.H.); to Syria was sent al-Mugheerah ibn Shu’bah (d. 50 A.H.); Abu ‘Abd ar-Rahmaan as-Sulami (d. 70 A.H.) was sent to Koofah; and ‘Aamir ibn ‘Abdul Qays to Basra (d. ~55 A.H.).^[83] All of these reciters were well-known for their recitation of the Quran, and it is in fact through them that most of the qira’at are preserved.

‘Uthman’s compilation occurred in the year 24 A.H., or, according to others, in the early part of 25 A.H.^[84]

Abu Bakr’s compilation of the Mushaf differed from ‘Uthman’s compilation in the following ways:

1. The reason that each of them compiled the Quran was different. Abu Bakr compiled the Quran in response to the large number of deaths of those who had memorized the Quran, and in fear of its being lost. ‘Uthman, on the other hand, compiled the Mushafs in response to the inauthentic recitations that newcomers to Islam, who were ignorant of the Arabic of the Quran, were reciting. He wished to unite the Muslims in the proper recitation of the Quran and therefore ordered the eradication of all other Mushafs so that the people would have only one Mushaf in their hands.
2. The number of people who were in charge of the two compilations was different. Abu Bakr relied on the person who was the best suited and most qualified to do so, namely Zayd ibn Thabit. ‘Uthman, on the other hand, used the services of Zayd but also had three of the major Companions, all of whom were known for their knowledge of the Quran, to help him.
3. The number of Mushafs Abu Bakr ordered to be made was only one, whereas ‘Uthman ordered several.
4. Since Abu Bakr did not face the problem of inauthentic recitations of the Quran, he did not have to take the step that ‘Uthman did in destroying all other written copies of the Quran. Uthman’s decision ensured that all future copies would have to rely upon the original ‘Uthmanic ones.
5. Abu Bakr compiled the Quran from ‘ … date palm leaves, wood and the hearts of people … ‘ whereas ‘Uthman ordered the rewriting of Abu Bakr’s Mushaf in the writing style of the Quraysh.
6. Abu Bakr’s Mushaf, according to one opinion, did not concern itself with arranging the Surahs properly; only the verses of each Surah were arranged. ‘Uthman, on the other hand, arranged the Surahs and verses in their proper arrangement.

To summarize, we can say that in the year that the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) passed away, Jibreel went over the Quran with him twice, and this last rehearsal is the recitation of Zayd ibn Thaabit and others, and it is the recitation that the Khulafaa ar-Rashidoon, Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, ‘Uthman, and ‘Ali ordered to be written in Mushafs, and Abu Bakr was the first to write it. Then ‘Uthman, during his caliphate, ordered it to be written again, and he sent it to all of the provinces, and the Companions all agreed to this.”

Differences

As we already discussed, there are differences between the Mushaf of Abu Bakr and the Mushaf of Uthaman. Now we will discuss general differences, which are in a lot of different Mushaf, which does not affect its preservation, but still, it is necessary to know the differences so we will get a broad and detailed idea about them, and this also makes it easy to understand the differences that occurred in the manuscripts of the Quran, which we will discuss in another chapter.

The Spelling of the Words of the Quran

The spelling of the words of the Quran is not the same as the spelling of modern-day Arabic. There are certain peculiarities of the ‘Uthmanic script that are not present in modern Arabic. Among these peculiarities in the writing of the Mushaf is that the ‘Uthmanic script eliminated certain alifs (for example the word ‘Rahman’ is written without an alif); and added certain silent letters (for example the word ‘salat’ is written with a silent waw); merged particular words (for example when the word ‘min’ is followed by ‘maa’ it is usually written as one word ‘mimaa’); and occasionally spelled the same word that occurred in different places differently.^[85] Some of these peculiarities were common in Arabic and specifically the Qurayshi script of that time, but later Arabic grammar changed these rules.

Another peculiarity was that when there existed two recitations of a particular word, the word was written such that both recitations would be preserved. For example, The word Maliki in 1:4 is written without an Alif i.e Maliki: مٰلك Since the alternate recitation Maliki had the alif has been written on this word i.e Maliki: مالک, the second recitation would not have been possible from the Mushaf of ‘Uthman; however, by writing it without an alif, both recitations are possible. The nature of the Arabic script and manner of writing allows for this, in contrast to Latin-based languages.

The Script of the Mushaf

The script of the Arabic is the style of writing of the various letters. For example, the font with which this text is written differs from the font of the chapter title. The script, then, is the style with which the letters are written. This is to be differentiated from the spelling, which was the topic of the previous section.

The script in which the ‘Uthmanic Mushaf was written was the old Koofee script. This script is almost incomprehensible to modern-day Arabic readers. The Mushafs were written without any hamzahs, dots (Nuqat – The nuqaat are the dots that are used to differentiate between different letters that have the same base structure; for example, the only way to differentiate between the letters yaa and taa is by the dots: if two dots are above the line, it is a taa, and if they are below, it is a yaa) or vowel marks (Tashkeel – The taskheel of the Quran are the diacritical marks of fat’ha, Kasra, and dhamma (in Urdu, the zeer, sabar, and Pesh), and other marks (such as the shadda) that are used to pronounce the particular letters correctly). This was the traditional manner of writing at that time. Therefore, for example, a straight line could represent the letters baa, taa, thaa, and yaa, and each letter could have any of the vowel marks assigned to it. It was only by context that the appropriate letters and vowels could be differentiated. The Arabs at that time were accustomed to such a script and would substitute the appropriate letter and vowel depending on the context.

The ‘Uthmanic Mushaf was arranged in the order of the Surahs present today. No indications were signifying the ending of the verses, and the only sign that a Surah had ended was the bismillah (The phrase ‘Bismillah al-Rahmaan al-Raheem’, which appears at the beginning of each Surah except the ninth). There were also no textual divisions (into thirtieths, sixtieths, etc.). This was done so that the Quran be preserved with the utmost purity; only the text of the Quran, unadorned with later embellishments, was written.

This was the appearance of the original ‘Uthmanic Mushafs. As is well-known, however, the appearance of modern Mushafs is strikingly different from the simple Uthmanic one. The process of this change was gradual.

The first change to occur was the addition of the diacritical marks to the tashkeel. There are varying reports as to who the first person to add Tashkeel to the Quran was.

The name that is most commonly mentioned is that of a Successor by the name of Abu al-Aswad ad-Du’ali (d. 69 A.H.), who was also the first to codify the science of Arabic grammar (Nahw). According to one report, ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib asked him to make the Mushaf easier for the people to recite, but he initially declined to do so, since he did not believe it was necessary. However, he once heard a person recite the verse,

اَنَّ اللّٰهَ بَرِىۡءٌ مِّنَ الۡمُشۡرِكِيۡنَ وَرَسُوۡلُهٗ.

“Allah and His Apostle break off all ties with the pagans.” Quran [9:3]

as “Allah breaks off all ties with the pagans and His Apostle.” This drastic change in meaning occurred by changing only one vowel (i.e., pronouncing rasooluh as rasoolih). Said Abu al-Aswad, “I did not think the state of the people had degenerated to this level!” Recalling the advice of Ali ibn Abi Talib, he went to Ziyaad ibn Abeehee, the governor of Iraq under ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib, and requested him to supply him with a scribe. Abu al-Aswad told the scribe, “If I pronounce (the vowel) a, then write a dot above the letter. If I pronounce it as u, then write a dot in front of the letter. If I pronounce an i, then write it below the letter.”^[86] Abu al-Aswad was reacting to the problems that had arisen among non-Arabs who had embraced Islam and were new to the Arabic language. They had difficulty reading the script of Uthman, without a tashkeel. Thus, Abu al-Aswad started the rudimentary art of tashkeel.

Other reports give the names of Nasr ibn ‘Aasim (d. 89 A.H.), Yahya ibn Ya’mar (d. 100 A.H.), al-Hassan al-Basree (d. 110 A.H.), and Muhammad (PBUH) ibn Seereen (d. 110 A.H.). However, some of these reports qualify Nasr and Yayha as adding the dots (nuqat) for the first time, and not the tashkeel. Yet another report states that it was Abu al-Aswad who was the first to do this, but at the command of Hajjaaj ibn Yoosuf (d. 95 A.H.), the infamous governor of Iraq under the fifth Umayyad Caliph, ‘Abd al-Malik ibn Marwaan, and not under the caliphate of Ali.

In combining all of these reports, the strongest series of events seems to be as follows: Abu al-Aswad was the first to add the tashkeel into the Mushaf on an official basis, during the caliphate of Ali, and his students Yahya ibn Ya’mar and Nasr ibn ‘Aasim were the first to officially add dots (nuqat) during the reign of ‘Abd al-Malik ibn Marwaan (d. 86 A.H.). They were not the first to do so, however, as both al-Hassan al-Basree and Muhammad (PBUH) ibn Seereen had preceded them in this endeavor. However, al-Hassan al-Basree and Muhammad (PBUH) ibn Seereen had added the nuqat on their private Mushafs, whereas Abu al-Aswad and his two students were the first to add the taskheel and nuqat on an official basis into the Mushaf. This sequence of events takes into account all of the narrations and is the one that most of the researchers in this field have concluded.^[87] Az-Zarqaanee writes,

May Allah have mercy on these two scholars (Yahya ibn Ya’mar and Nasr ibn ‘Aasim), for they were successful in this endeavor (of adding nuqat to the Quran), and completed the addition of the nuqat for the first time. They conditioned upon themselves not to increase the number of dots of any letter above three. This system spread and became popular among the people after them, and it had a great impact in removing confusion and doubts concerning (the proper recitation of) the Mushaf.^[88]

Thus, Abu al-Aswad was the first to add the tashkeel to the Quran, and Yahya and Nasr were the first who differentiate the various similar letters of the Arabic alphabet using dots. They did this during the reign of the Ummayad Caliph ‘Abd al-Maalik.

Abu al-Aswad died in 69 A.H., and ‘Abd al-Maalik’s reign ended in 86 A.H., which means that less than three-quarters of a century after the Prophet’s death, while some of the Companions were still alive, the Quran had been written down with a rudimentary version of tashkeel and nuqat.

In the beginning, scribes used to write the nuqat in black and the tashkeel in red to distinguish it from the actual text of the Quran. There are hundreds of Mushafs dating from the first two centuries of the hijrah still present with this type of tashkeel system.

There are some narrations from the Salaf concerning their disapproval of these additions. It is narrated by Ibn Mas’ood, an-Nakhaa’ee (d. 96 A.H.), Qataadah (d. 117 A.H.), and other scholars of the first two generations concerning the prohibition of adding these dots to the Mushaf. Other scholars, however, such as al-Hasan al-Basree (d. 110 A.H.) and Ibn Seereen (d. 110 A.H.), did not see a problem with the addition of these dots.^[89] Imam Maalik (d. 179 A.H.) was asked concerning the addition of taskheel and nuqat in the Quran. He replied, “The people continued to ask me concerning the addition of dots in the Quran, so I say: As for the major Mushafs, I do not think they should be dotted, nor should anything be added that is not in them. As for the minor Mushafs, the ones that the children learn from then I do not see any problem with it.”^[90] Therefore, Imam Maalik thought that the Quran should be left the way that it was written, and the only exception was the Mushafs that children learned from. This strictness was due to the concern felt by these scholars to keep the script of the Mushaf of Uthman pure from all additions.

However, later scholars of the salaf became less strict concerning the addition of the taskheel and nuqat. This was due to the benefit that was gained, for it aided the average person in properly reciting the Quran. Khalaf ibn Hishaam (d. 229 A.H.) reports, “I used to sit in the gathering of al-Kisaa’ee (the famous Qaaree), and the people would add (taskheel) based upon his recitation.” Ad-Daanee (d. 444 A.H.) writes,

“I happened to come across an old copy of the Mushaf, written during the beginning of the Caliphate of Hishaam ibn ‘Abd al-Maalik. Its date (of writing) was written on the last page: ‘Written by Mugheerah ibn Meenaa, in Rajab, in the year 110A.H.’ It had tashkeel, the hamzahs … and the dots (nuqat) were in red.”^[91]

Both these quotes show that, eventually, the addition of tashkeel and nuqat was accepted as a part of the writing of the Mushaf. The College of Quran and Islamic Sciences in the Islamic University of Madinah embarked on its ‘Quran Project’ in 1982. The goal was to print a Mushaf that would be a copy of the ‘Uthmanic one in its script, and include nuqat, tashkeel, verse numbers, and Surah names in a different color, to differentiate between the actual text of Uthman and later additions. Unfortunately, due to certain problems, the project collapsed, but not after it had written a portion of the Quran. You can check example of their work.^[92]

During the next few centuries, further developments occurred, such as the writing of the Surah names at the beginning of the Surah, and the separation of the verses by special symbols and numbers. Initially, the verses were distinguished by placing three dots at the end of a verse. After every five verses, the word ‘khams'(five) was written, and after every ten, ‘ashr’ (ten), after which the numbering would start from the beginning, until the end of that particular Surah. Soon afterwards, the word khams was abbreviated to the letter khaa, and the word ashr to the letter ayn, both of which were written in the margin of the Mushaf. Eventually, the verses were indicated by a circle at the end of each verse, and the sequential number of the verse was written in the circle, as is present in the Mushafs of today.^[93]

During the first century of the hijrah, the primary material upon which the Mushaf was written was parchment. After the Muslim conquest of Transoxania in the early part of the second century of the hijrah, the Muslims learned from Chinese craftsmen the art of paper-making, and thus paper became the primary material upon which the Mushaf was written.^[94]

The sixth Umayyad caliph, al-Walid ibn ‘Abd al-Malik (ruled 86-96 A.H.), was the first to officially order the beautification of the Quran. He instructed the calligrapher Khalid ibn Abi Hayyaj to write the Quran in Kufic calligraphy. During the Abbasid era, Khalil bin Ahmad (d. 170 A.H.), a teacher of the famous Arabic grammarian Sibawayh, also contributed to the beautification and simplification of the script. He introduced the present system of tashkeel: a straight line above the letter for the vowel “a,” a line below the letter for “i,” a damma for “u,” a shadda to indicate assimilation, and a small kha without the dot to show that the letter has no vowel but is not silent.^[95]

However, the greatest change in the style of writing came in the third century of hijrah by Ibn Muqlah (d. 327 A.H.), who is regarded as the founder of the calligraphy of the Quran. He introduced the Naskh script, which replaced the former Koofee script, and upon which the style of writing of the Quran today is based. Ibn Muqlah also established rules for the writing of each letter. Ibn al-Bawwaab (d. 413 A.H.) also played a vital role in the spreading of the Naskh script. In the seventh century of hijrah,’ Aamir Ali Tabreezee introduced Khat e-NastAleeq, another popular script.^[96]

The Quran in Print

With the advent of the printing press, the Mushaf changed accordingly. The first Quran that is known to have been printed with movable type techniques was done in 1694 CE, in Hamburg, Germany. It was edited by a Jew, Abraham Hinkellmann, and contained many errors. Al-Hamad criticizes it as follows:

There are major errors (in this print), and on almost every page the reader will find manifest examples of these … which only proves the poor level of knowledge the editor had of the Arabic language and its rules.^[97]

In 1841, Gustav Fluegel released another printed Mushaf, in which the verse numbering differed from traditional Mushafs. This Mushaf was a reproduction of a famous Turkish Mushaf, written by Haafidh ‘Uthman (d. 1110 A.H.).^[98] This was published in Leipzig and became a standard version for Orientalists for the next two centuries.

The first Mushaf done by Muslims in this style is reputed to be the one done in St. Petersburg, Russia, in 1787 CE. These were followed by Mushafs printed in Kazan (in 1828 CE), Persia (in 1833 CE), Istanbul (in 1877 CE) and Cairo (in 1890 CE). A more common one, which took on the role of a ‘standard printed version’, is one that was ordered by King Fu’aad of Egypt, in 1925. It was written by a committee of scholars from al-Azhar University, under the supervision of Sheikh Mohammad’Ali Khalaf al-Husaynee.^[99]

Since then, hundreds of other printed Mushafs have followed. One of the more beautiful ones is the ‘Madinah Mushaf,’ recently printed in Saudi Arabia, in the King Fahd Complex for the Printing of the Holy Quran in Madinah.

All of these have been in the qiraa’a of Hafs ‘an ‘Aasim (I will explain these terms in the second part). There are also printed copies of the Quran in the qira’at of Warsh ‘an Nafi’ (printed in Algeria and Morocco, and very recently also by the King Fahd Complex), and in the qiraa’a of Qaloon ‘an Nafi’ (printed in Libya).

In the present age, almost all Mushafs follow one of two scripts: either Naskhee (most of the Arab countries) or Farsee (the Indian subcontinent).

From Historical Lens

We can prove the preservation of the Quran without the Quran and Hadith according to the criteria of Western academics. By doing this, we will get a broad idea about its preservation because it is not based on hadith literature and books of history.

Is Quran 15:9 a proof of preservation?

No, this can never be proven in the academic world. This is proof for those who have faith in the Quran, but if we make this a proof of preservation, then we also have to account for the preservation of the Bible, because in the Bible several verses show that God takes responsibility for preserving the Bible.

According to the Bible:

1. Isaiah 40:8 – “The grass withers, the flower fades, but the word of our God stands forever.” This verse is often cited to indicate the enduring nature of God’s word​​.
2. Psalm 119:89 – “Forever, O Lord, your word is firmly fixed in the heavens.” This verse suggests the eternal and unchanging nature of God’s word​​.
3. Matthew 24:35 – “Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words will not pass away.” This New Testament verse echoes the idea that Jesus’ words will endure forever​​.
4. 1 Peter 1:25 – “But the word of the Lord remains forever. And this word is the good news that was preached to you.” This verse, referencing Isaiah 40:8, reiterates the eternal nature of God’s word​​.

Oral: The Primary Method of Transmission

Oral transmission, the act of memorizing and reciting the Quran by heart (Hifz), stands as a foundational pillar of Quranic preservation. Here, we delve deep into the arguments for its effectiveness, while acknowledging potential counterarguments.

Arabs on Oral Transmission

Mufti Taqi Usmani notes in his book that the Arabs had exceptional memories, enabling them to memorize hundreds of verses of poetry effortlessly. They could recite detailed pedigrees of themselves, their horses, and their camels. Even children knew the pedigrees of various tribes. Hammad, a well-known poet and narrator, had memorized 3,038 long poems, one hundred for each letter of the alphabet. The Arabs trusted their memories over written records, viewing memory as more secure and unalterable compared to the perceived vulnerability of written texts. Some poets felt that relying on written records indicated a weakness in memory, preferring the reliability of their mental faculties.^[100]

The Huffaz

Soon, we will update the list of Huffaz from Sahaba.

Arguments for the Strength of Oral Transmission:

1. Emphasis During the Prophet’s Lifetime: The Prophet himself placed immense importance on memorization. Companions directly learned and memorized Quranic verses, ensuring their accuracy through constant repetition. This prioritization during the revelation period solidified oral tradition as a core practice.
2. Benefits of Memorization: Memorization fosters a deep understanding of the Quran’s language, rhythm, and message. By internalizing the text, the reciter develops an intimate connection with the divine word, enhancing accuracy and retention.
3. Development of Tajweed: The science of Quranic recitation (Tajweed) ensures proper pronunciation and articulation. Mastering Tajweed alongside memorization further safeguards the integrity of oral transmission.
4. Chain of Transmission (Isnad): A meticulous system of narration (isnad) tracks the transmission chain of the Quran back to the Prophet. Each reciter can trace their learning lineage to a companion who learned directly from the Prophet, ensuring authenticity.
5. Strength of Human Memory: Human memory, especially when trained from a young age, can be remarkably accurate. Generations of Quran reciters have demonstrated exceptional feats of memorization, preserving the Quran with remarkable fidelity.

Counterarguments and Considerations:

1. Vulnerability to Human Error: Despite its strengths, human memory can be fallible. Forgetting or misremembering verses poses a potential risk to the accuracy of transmission.
2. Variations in Recitation (Qira’at): The existence of authorized variations in recitation styles (Qira’at) raises questions about a single, absolute oral transmission. However, these variations are minor and do not affect the overall meaning of the Quran.
3. Limited Reach in the Early Days: While effective for a close-knit community, oral transmission might have limitations in reaching a wider audience before the development of written documentation.

Addressing the counterarguments:

1. Mitigating Memory Lapses: The emphasis on repetition, verification by peers, and the presence of multiple reciters minimizes the risk of errors. Regular review and verification processes ensure the accuracy of the memorized text.
2. Qira’at as Enrichment: The authorized variations in recitation styles are seen as a source of richness in the Quranic tradition, not a threat to its integrity. Each Qira’at adheres to the underlying meaning of the text.
3. Synergy with Written Text: Oral transmission and written documentation are not mutually exclusive. The development of a written script complemented the oral tradition, providing a permanent record for reference and wider dissemination.

Again, we cannot trust in writing only because scribal errors are very common. that is why the Quran is not only oral but also written, which we already discussed and will discuss in the second part of this chapter.

Written: The Second Method of Transmission

As we already discussed, the Quran was not only saved through oral tradition but also writing, and we already discussed its process of writing. Now it is time to check it through a pure historical lens.

We will now discuss early manuscripts of the Quran. it is not possible to discuss every single manuscript of the Quran we will do; that is the second and third parts of the paper. For now, we discuss the 1st century of Hijrah only.

Basic Concepts

Manuscript (مخطوطة [muḵṭūṭah])

A manuscript refers to any document or book written manually, typically predating the invention of printing. In early Islamic history, the Quranic manuscripts were painstakingly handwritten on materials like parchment or paper. These documents are pivotal in understanding the Quran’s historical transmission, showcasing variations in script, style, and orthography from its formative period.

Parchment

Parchment is a durable writing material crafted from treated animal skins, such as those from sheep or goats. This material was commonly used for writing manuscripts before the widespread availability of paper, including many early Quranic texts. Its durability has allowed numerous ancient manuscripts to endure, providing critical insights into the development of early Islamic calligraphy and script.

Vellum

Vellum, a superior type of parchment made from calfskin, is noted for its smooth texture and robustness. Historically, it was used for creating luxurious manuscripts, including some early Quranic copies. Its fine quality made it suitable for important or ceremonial editions of the Quran.

Paper

Paper, a writing material derived from plant fibers, revolutionized document production after its invention in China. As paper-making techniques spread, Quranic manuscripts began to be produced on paper, enhancing their accessibility and distribution, and influencing the standardization of the Quranic text.

Script

Scripts are written symbols representing a language. Early Quranic manuscripts feature distinct scripts that evolved:

• Hijazi Script: Known for its informal, slanted letters, this script was prevalent in the Hijaz region during the 7th and 8th centuries CE.
• Kufic Script: Originating around the 8th century CE in Kufa, Iraq, this script is characterized by its geometric and angular appearance and is noted for its aesthetic qualities in early Quranic manuscripts.

These scripts are crucial for dating and authenticating Quranic texts, reflecting the evolution of Islamic calligraphy.

Fragmentary

The term “fragmentary” describes manuscripts that survive only in incomplete parts. Many early Quranic manuscripts are known to exist only as fragments due to their age and historical circumstances. Studying these remnants is essential for reconstructing the early history of the Quranic text.

Codex

A codex is a book format consisting of multiple pages bound together, unlike scrolls. The earliest complete Quranic texts are in the form of codices, which offered more efficient storage and reading compared to scrolls and became the standard format for Quranic manuscripts.

Palimpsest

A palimpsest is a manuscript that has been reused by scraping or washing off the original writing and writing over it again. An example is the Sana’a Palimpsest, which contains Quranic verses overwritten by a later legal text. It provides a unique perspective on the layers of text and the transmission of Quranic verses.

Radiocarbon Dating

Radiocarbon dating is a scientific technique used to determine the age of organic materials by measuring the decay of carbon isotopes. This method has been employed to date early Quranic manuscripts, such as the Tübingen Fragment, helping establish a historical timeline for the writing and compilation of the Quran.

Dating Uncertainties

Dating manuscripts precisely can be a complex task. Here are some reasons why exact dating can be challenging:

Dating the earliest Quranic manuscripts is like trying to determine the exact age of a very old, unsigned legal document. here is why achieving a precise date proves difficult:

1. Missing Colophons: Unlike some later manuscripts, many early Quranic ones lack colophons – inscriptions that typically include the date and place of creation. it is akin to finding a crucial legal document without a filing date or notary stamp – a vital piece of information is missing.
2. Material Mysteries: Radiocarbon dating, a technique that analyzes the decay of radioactive carbon isotopes, can estimate the age of the animal skin or plant material (like papyrus) used for the manuscript. However, this does not tell us exactly when that animal died or the plant was harvested, leaving a gap in the timeline. Imagine trying to date a legal document based solely on the estimated age of the paper it is written on – you would not know when the document itself was created.
3. Ink Enigma: Analyzing the ink composition can suggest an age range, but similar inks might have been used for decades. it is analogous to analyzing the ink used on a legal document and using that to guess its year of origin. While the ink color might offer clues, similar inks could have been used for extended periods, making a precise date difficult to pinpoint.

These uncertainties create challenges in definitively dating the earliest Quranic manuscripts, similar to the difficulties encountered when trying to determine the exact age of an unsigned legal document.

Even though achieving an exact date for the earliest Quranic manuscripts remains elusive, scholars employ various methods to estimate their age. here is how we get a glimpse into their creation period:

1. Paleography: This method involves analyzing the script and writing style used in the manuscript. By comparing these features with dated manuscripts from known historical periods, experts can estimate the age range. Imagine looking at the font and layout of an old legal document and comparing it to known legal documents from different eras. Similarities in style can suggest a timeframe for the updated document.
2. Radiocarbon Dating: This scientific technique measures the decay of radioactive carbon isotopes present in organic materials like parchment or papyrus used in the manuscript. While it does not provide a specific year, it offers a date range with a certain level of statistical probability. Think of it like a scientific tool that estimates the age range of the paper used in the legal document, not the date the document itself was written.
3. Historical Context: By studying the historical context surrounding the development of Quranic scripts and the known practices of early Islamic communities, scholars can make educated guesses about the potential age of a manuscript. Imagine analyzing historical records about legal document production during a specific period to understand the document’s possible timeframe.

Combining these methods allows scholars to create a more informed picture of a manuscript’s age, even if a pinpoint date remains elusive. While the lack of colophons (inscriptions with creation date) presents a challenge, these techniques offer valuable insights into the fascinating history of these early Quranic manuscripts.

Manuscripts

To date, over sixty fragments, encompassing more than 2,000 folios (equivalent to 4,000 pages), have been identified as textual witnesses (manuscripts) of the Quran that predate 800 CE, within 168 years of Muhammad’s death, according to Corpus Coranicum.

Birmingham Quran Manuscript

Wikipedia contributors, “Birmingham Quran manuscript,” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_Quran_manuscript&oldid=1233364087 (accessed July 18, 2024).

Known as the oldest Quranic fragment, this early Hijazi script on parchment, containing part of Surah Al-Kahf, potentially dates to the 1st century Hijrah (6th century CE). The dating is contested, but the script provides early writing insights.

Category	Details
Date of Creation	Between c. 568 and 645 CE
Origin/Provenance	Part of the Mingana Collection of Middle Eastern manuscripts, Cadbury Research Library, University of Birmingham Recognized as belonging with leaves cataloged as BnF Arabe 328(c) in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France in Paris
Material	Parchment Ink
Script	Hijazi
Dimensions	Folio size: 343 mm by 258 mm
Several Folios/Pages	Two leaves
Textual Content	Parts of Surahs 18 (verses 17-31), 19 (final eight verses 91-98), and 20 (first forty verses)
Current Location	Cadbury Research Library, University of Birmingham Also displayed at the Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery until August 5, 2016
Catalog Reference	Mingana 1572a

Codex Amrensis

Copyright, Islamic Awareness. “Codex Amrensis 1 – A Qur’anic Manuscript From 2nd Century Hijra,” n.d. https://www.islamic-awareness.org/quran/text/mss/arabe326a.

Partial manuscript covering around 20.5% of the Quran. it is written in the early Hijazi script and is believed to date from the 1st-2nd century Hijrah (6th-7th century CE). This manuscript provides crucial insights into the Quran’s early transmission.

Category	Details
Date of Creation	2nd century of Hijra
Origin/Provenance	Originated from the ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ mosque, Fustat Leaves were acquired by Jean-Joseph Marcel (part of the National Library of Russia, St. Petersburg) Other leaves acquired by Jean-Louis Asselin de Cherville (part of Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris) Single folio at the Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, London
Material	Parchment
Script	Hijazi
Dimensions	Folio size: 17.8 cm x 27.0 cm Writing area: 14.2 cm x 25.0 cm 12-13 lines per page
Several Folios/Pages	Total number of folios: 75 6 (Arabe 326a, Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris) 36 (Rennes Encheres I + Rennes Encheres II, 2011, Lot 152) 32 (Marcel 9, National Library of Russia, St. Petersburg) 1 (KFQ34, Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, London) Extant folios contain about 20.5% of the text of the Quran
Textual Content	Various Surahs including Surah 8:1-9:123, and 10:2-47:38 (specific folio and verse details provided in the document)
Current Location	Parts of the manuscript are located in different collections: Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris (Arabe 326a) National Library of Russia, St. Petersburg (Marcel 9) Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, London (KFQ34) Rennes Encheres I + II, 2011, Lot 152
Catalog Reference	Arabe 326a Marcel 9 KFQ34

Codex Parisino-petropolitanus

Wikipedia contributors, “Codex Parisino-petropolitanus,” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Codex_Parisino-petropolitanus&oldid=1213086283 (accessed July 18, 2024).

Containing parts of the Quran in early Kufic script, this fragmentary manuscript is from the 7th-8th century CE and helps in studying early Quranic transmission.

Category	Details
Date of Creation	Late 7th century CE (third quarter of the 1st century A.H.)
Origin/Provenance	Initially stored in the Mosque of Amr ibn al-As in Fustat, Egypt Acquired during the Napoleonic expedition to Egypt in 1798/99 by Jean-Joseph Marcel and Jean-Louis Asselin de Cherville
Material	Parchment
Script	Hijazi
Dimensions	Folio size: Not explicitly mentioned, but described as having 12-13 lines per page
Several Folios/Pages	Total number of extant folios: 118 70 folia at the Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris (BnF Arabe 328(ab)) 46 folia at the National Library of Russia, Saint-Petersburg 1 folio at the Vatican Library (Vat. Ar. 1605/1) 1 folio at the Khalili Collections, London (KFQ 60)
Textual Content	Spans Quran 2:275 to Q72:2 with lacunae in between Contains about 45% of the Quranic text
Current Location	Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris National Library of Russia, Saint-Petersburg Vatican Library Khalili Collections, London
Catalog Reference	BnF Arabe 328(ab) Vat. Ar. 1605/1 KFQ 60

The Sana’a Palimpsest (also Ṣanʽā’ 1 or DAM 01-27.1)

Wikipedia contributors, “Sanaa manuscript,” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sanaa_manuscript&oldid=1233768751 (accessed July 18, 2024).

A unique palimpsest with an underlying Quranic text and a later Islamic legal treatise, dating to the 7th-8th century CE. It offers insights into both Quranic and legal script developments.

Category	Details
Date of Creation	Radiocarbon analysis dates the parchment between 578 CE (44 BH) and 669 CE (49 A.H.) with a 95% accuracy. The earliest leaves have been dated to 388-535 CE.
Origin/Provenance	Discovered in 1972 during a restoration of the Great Mosque of Sanaa in Yemen.
Material	Parchment
Script	Hijazi script
Dimensions	Written line length of approximately 27 cm (11 inches)
Number of Folios/Pages	About eighty-two folios have been identified, with thirty-eight in the House of Manuscripts in Yemen and four in private collections.
Textual Content	Upper text: Conforms to the standard Uthmanic Quran. Lower text: Contains many variations from the standard text and follows a different sequence of chapters.
Current Location	House of Manuscripts, Dār al-Makhṭūṭāt (DAM), in Ṣan’ā’, Yemen. Some folios are in private collections.
Catalog Reference	DAM 01-27.1

Codex Mashhad

Copyright, Islamic Awareness. “Codex Mashhad – An Early Qur’an In Ibn Masud’s Arrangement Of Surahs, 1st Century Hijra,” n.d. https://www.islamic-awareness.org/quran/text/mss/codexmashhad.

The term Codex Mashhad refers to an old codex of the Quran, now mostly preserved in two manuscripts, MSS 18 and 4116, in the Āstān-i Quds Library, Mashhad, Iran. The first manuscript in 122 folios and the second in 129 folios together constitute more than 90% of the text of the Quran, and it is also likely that other fragments will be found in Mashhad or elsewhere in the world.

Category	Details
Date of Creation	1st century Hijra (7th century CE). Radiocarbon dating gives a 95.4% probability between 660 and 772 CE, with a high probability that it dates between 660 and 687 CE.
Origin/Provenance	Probably produced in the Hijaz region and brought to Iraq. The exact history of the transfer is unclear. Presently housed in the Āstān-i Quds Library in Mashhad, Iran.
Material	Parchment
Script	Hijazi or Hijazi-like script. B1a classification according to Déroche.
Dimensions	MS 18: 46.2 cm × 34.5 cm. MS 4116: Approximately 40 cm × 30 cm. Each folio usually has 22 or 23 lines, with variations between 20 to 25 lines.
Number of Folios/Pages	Total of 251 folios. MS 18 contains 122 folios, and MS 4116 contains 129 folios.
Textual Content	The manuscript originally followed Ibn Masʿūd’s order of sūras but was later amended to conform to the Uthmanic order. Contains diacritical points added later and various verse endings. Some parts of the manuscript are written in a later Kufic hand.
Current Location	Āstān-i Quds Library, Mashhad, Iran.
Catalog Reference	MS 18 and MS 4116 at Āstān-i Quds Library.

Topkapi Manuscript

Wikipedia contributors, “Topkapi manuscript,” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Topkapi_manuscript&oldid=1212906720 (accessed July 18, 2024).

Known as the oldest complete Quran, written on paper in Kufic script and dating to the early 9th century CE. It is essential for understanding the standardized Quran.

Category	Details
Date of Creation	Early 2nd century A.H. (early to mid-8th century AD).
Origin/Provenance	Traditionally attributed to Uthman ibn Affan. Sent as a gift by Mehmed Ali Pasha, Governor of Egypt, to the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II in the 19th century.
Material	Vellum (calfskin)
Script	Developed Kufic script. Paleographic assessment indicates it dates back to the 8th century.
Dimensions	41 cm x 46 cm
Number of Folios/Pages	Contains more than 99% of the text of the Quran, with only two pages (23 verses) missing.
Textual Content	Closest to the complete text of the Quran, with similar illuminations found in the Dome of the Rock and the Umayyad Mosque.
Current Location	Topkapi Palace Museum, Istanbul, Turkey.
Catalog Reference	We will update this currently; we do not have enough data about it. Visit http://www.wisdomconnect.io for an update.

Blue Quran

Wikipedia contributors, “Blue Quran,” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Blue_Quran&oldid=1229173793 (accessed July 18, 2024).

A luxurious codex on vellum in Kufic script from the 10th-11th century CE, showcasing later Abbasid period calligraphy.

Category	Details
Date of Creation	Late 9th to mid-10th century.
Origin/Provenance	Debated origin: Possibly Kairouan, Tunisia or Cordoba, Umayyad Spain. Evidence also suggests potential origins in Persia (Mashhad) or Tunisia.
Material	Parchment made from sheepskin. Dyed with indigo, possibly from Indian Indigo or woad.
Script	Kufic script, characterized by sharp angles and absence of vowel markings.
Dimensions	Height: 30.4 cm (11 15/16 inches). Width: 40.2 cm (15 13/16 inches). Horizontal layout.
Several Folios/Pages	Approximately 600 folios.
Textual Content	Surah 30: 28–32 included in the sample folio. Features gold lettering with some folios displaying stripped or partially stripped letters.
Current Location	Dispersed across multiple locations: Musée de la Civilisation et des Arts Islamiques, Tunisia. National Library, Museum of Fine Arts, Harvard University Art Museums, Metropolitan Museum of Art. Some folios in the Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, Raqqada National Museum of Islamic Art, and Museum of Islamic Art in Doha.
Catalog Reference	Specific catalog references are not provided in the summary but mentioned institutions and collections hold various folios.
Unique Points of this Manuscript	Blue Coloring: Unique indigo dye on parchment. Gold Lettering: Achieved through gold leaf application.

Samarkand Kufic Quran

Wikipedia contributors, “Samarkand Kufic Quran,” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samarkand_Kufic_Quran&oldid=1219961899 (accessed July 18, 2024).

A near-complete manuscript with about 90-95% of the Quran in Kufic script, estimated from the 8th-9th century CE. Its completeness and historical context make it a valuable resource.

Category	Details
Date of Creation	8th or 9th century CE. Radiocarbon dating indicates a high probability of creation between 775 and 995 CE. One folio dated between 595 and 855 CE.
Origin/Provenance	Likely created in the territory of modern Iraq. Believed to have been taken to Samarkand (present day Uzbekistan) by Tamerlane. The manuscript is traditionally associated with the third caliph Uthman ibn Affan, though likely not one of the original Uthmanic copies. Historical journey includes relocation to Kufa, then to Samarkand by Tamerlane, later moved to Saint-Petersburg, and finally returned to Tashkent.
Material	Parchment (likely sheepskin)
Script	Kufic script: Characterized by its angular form and lack of diacritics.
Dimensions	The manuscript has eight to twelve lines per page. Specific physical dimensions are not provided.
Several Folios/Pages	The incomplete manuscript starts in the middle of verse seven of the second sura and ends at Surah 43:10.
Textual Content	Includes part of Surah Al-Anbiya (Ayah 105-110) among other sections. Lacks vocalization, reflecting its antiquity.
Current Location	Hast Imam Library, Tashkent, Uzbekistan. A detached folio is housed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, US.
Catalog Reference	Specific catalog references are not provided in the summary but can be found under institutional records and publications related to the manuscript.

Mail Quran

Wikipedia contributors, “Early Quranic manuscripts,” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early_Quranic_manuscripts&oldid=1231476257 (accessed July 18, 2024).

Early Hijazi script fragments on parchment from the 2nd-3rd centuries of Islam (8th-9th century CE), contributed to the study of Quranic script development.

Category	Details
Date of Creation	8th century CE (between 700 and 799 CE).
Origin/Provenance	Arabian Peninsula. Purchased by the British Museum in 1879 from the Reverend Greville John Chester. Currently housed in the British Library.
Material	Generally, Parchment but We will update this currently; we do not have enough data about it. Visit www.wisdomconnect.io for an update.
Script	Hijazi script, known for its distinctive angular and slanted style, is commonly used in early Qurans from the Arabian Peninsula.
Dimensions	We will update this currently; we do not have enough data about it. Visit www.wisdomconnect.io for an update.
Several Folios/Pages	Contains approximately two-thirds of the Quranic text.
Textual Content	Includes a significant portion of the Quran, with some sections missing.
Current Location	British Library, London, UK.
Catalog Reference	Known as the Ma’il Quran. Reference in the British Library: Or. 2165.

There are not all manuscripts from the entire history of Islam; these are some popular and well-known manuscripts. All the details and other manuscripts will be discussed in the second and third parts of the paper. For now, you can enjoy a visual chart.

Assumptions Of The Orientalists

1. Generally, Western scholars tend to underestimate the importance of oral transmission. They require what is known as external evidence; that is to say, physical evidence/physical manuscripts.
2. The second reason is due to a common misconception. Just as we do not have any extant New Testament manuscripts dated to the first century of the (CE), which is the century of Jesus (PBUH), there are also probably no extant Quran manuscripts from the first century of Hijri (AH), which is the century of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH).
3. The third reason is because of a “hermeneutic of suspicion.” This idea that we as Westerners cannot trust anything that comes out of the East – the Muslim East. We must be suspicious of their claims.

The details of these reasons and the problems associated with them will be discussed in the second and third parts.

The Quran Through Amal (Action)

The preservation of the Quran is a miracle woven not just from divine revelation, but also from the ceaseless tapestry of amal (action) undertaken by generations of Muslims. Unlike other religious texts, the Quran was not simply written down and placed on a shelf. It became the very lifeblood of the Muslim community, a constant companion guiding their actions and shaping their world.

From the very first revelation in the Cave of Hira, the call to action resonated with Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Verses like “Iqra (Read)” (Quran 96:1) were not mere pronouncements; they were catalysts for active engagement. The Prophet embodied the message, integrating revelation into his daily life, interactions with his companions (Sahaba), and the nascent Muslim community.

The Sahaba, the generation who witnessed the Prophet directly, became the first custodians of the Quran not just through memorization but through amal. They translated the Quran’s teachings into action, establishing the foundation of Islamic law, social justice, and ethical conduct. Their lives became living commentaries on the Quran, demonstrating its applicability in everyday situations.

and there is a hadith in which Abdullah ibn Mas’ud said, “We used to learn ten verses of the Quran and would not move on to the next ten until we had understood and applied what was in them.”^[101]

This hadith shows that Companions do not only read and write; they do Amal without doing Amal; they do not move on to another verse, as mentioned in the hadith until we have understood and applied what is in them.

As Quran also emphasize on Amal:

وَالْعَصْرِ—إِنَّ الْإِنسَانَ لَفِي خُسْرٍ—إِلَّا الَّذِينَ آمَنُوا وَعَمِلُوا الصَّالِحَاتِ وَتَوَاصَوْا بِالْحَقِّ وَتَوَاصَوْا بِالصَّبْرِ

By Time. Indeed, mankind is at a loss. Except for those who have believed and done righteous deeds and advised each other to truth and patience. Quran [103:1-3]

Another example is:

يَا أَيُّهَا النَّبِيُّ, قُلْ لأَزْوَاجِكَ وَ بَنَاتِكَ وَ نِسآءِ الْمُؤْمِنِيْنَ: يُدْنِيْنَ عَلَيْهِنَّ مِنْ جَلاَبِيْبِهِنَّ…

“O Prophet! Say to your wives, your daughters, and the women of the believers that: they should let down upon themselves their jalabib (Loose Outer Garment).” Quran [33:59]

After the revelation of this verse, the female companions of the prophet immediately acted upon the verse.

As reported by Ayesha R.A;

Narrated by Safiya bint Shaiba:

Aisha used to say: “When (the Verse): “They should draw their veils over their necks and bosoms,” was revealed, (the ladies) cut their waist sheets at the edges and covered their heads and faces with those cut pieces of cloth.^[102]

We have another example from the prohibition of alcohol;

يَـٰٓأَيُّهَا ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوٓاْ إِنَّمَا ٱلۡخَمۡرُ وَٱلۡمَيۡسِرُ وَٱلۡأَنصَابُ وَٱلۡأَزۡلَٰمُ رِجۡسٞ مِّنۡ عَمَلِ ٱلشَّيۡطَٰنِ فَٱجۡتَنِبُوهُ لَعَلَّكُمۡ تُفۡلِحُونَ

O you who have believed, indeed, intoxicants, gambling, [sacrificing on] stone alters [to other than Allah], and divining arrows are but defilement from the work of Satan, so avoid it that you may be successful. Quran [4:43]

Narrated Anas:

The alcoholic drink that was spilled was Al-Fadikh. I used to offer alcoholic drinks to the people at the residence of Abu Talha. Then the order prohibiting Alcoholic drinks was revealed, and the Prophet ordered somebody to announce that: Abu Talha said to me, “Go out and see what this voice (this announcement) is.” I went out and (on coming back) said, “This is somebody announcing that alcoholic beverages have been prohibited.” Abu Talha said to me, “Go and spill it (i.e., the wine),” Then it (alcoholic drinks) was seen flowing through the streets of Medina. At that time, the wine was Al-Fadikh. The people said, “Some people (Muslims) were killed (during the battle of Uhud) while wine was in their stomachs.” So, Allah revealed: “On those who believe and do good deeds, there is no blame for what they ate (in the past).” Quran [5.93]^[103]

The Tabi’un, the generation that came after the Sahaba, carried on this legacy of animals. They meticulously documented the Prophet’s traditions (Hadiths), ensuring the chain of transmission (isnad) for the Quran itself. But more importantly, they actively applied the Quranic message in their own lives, fostering scholarship, establishing educational institutions, and expanding the reach of Islam.

Generations like the Taba Tabi’un and beyond continued this tradition. Scholars meticulously studied the Quran, weaving its wisdom into legal codes, social reforms, and philosophical discourse. The Quran was not just a text to be memorized; it was a blueprint for building a just and compassionate society. From the meticulous recitation in mosques to the application of Islamic principles in trade and governance, amal remained the cornerstone of Quranic preservation.

This focus on amal ensured the Quran’s relevance across diverse cultures and periods. Muslims across the globe grappled with its verses, drawing guidance on issues ranging from personal conduct to societal challenges. The Quran was not a relic of the past; it was a living document, constantly interpreted and reinterpreted through the lens of amal in different contexts.

The historical record abounds with examples of this dynamic relationship. The Prophet’s own life, from establishing social justice in Medina to leading military campaigns, exemplified the translation of Quranic principles into action. The caliphs who followed him strived to govern through Islamic law derived from the Quran. Sufi mystics sought spiritual connection through the recitation and contemplation of the text. Each generation, through their amal, ensured the Quran’s continued relevance and vibrancy.

In conclusion, the preservation of the Quran is not a passive phenomenon. It is a testament to the unwavering commitment of generations of Muslims who actively engaged with the text through the amal. Their meticulous transmission, fervent recitation, and most importantly, their embodiment of the Quran’s teachings in daily life, ensured its enduring legacy. The Quran continues to be a living guide for Muslims today, not just because of its divine origin, but also because of the countless threads of amal woven into its fabric by those who came before us.

Preserving the Meaning of the Quran

Quranic words reveal a world of facts and secrets:

وَفِیۤ أَنفُسِكُمۡۚ أَفَلَا تُبۡصِرُونَ

“And in yourselves. Then will you not, see?” Quran [51:21]

This verse encompasses the entire study of anatomy and psychology. It can be concluded that through intellect, wisdom, thinking, observations, and experiments, different types of knowledge become part of understanding the Quran.

The preservation of the meaning and verses of the Quran is ensured through rigorous adherence to six primary sources: the Quran itself, sayings of the Prophet Muhammad, sayings of his companions, sayings of the Tabi’een (successors), Arabic lexicon, and common sense. The identification of meanings is systematically approached through three levels of argumentation: conclusive, presumptive, and conjectural, ensuring a robust and comprehensive understanding across logical frameworks.

Sources to Determine the Preservation of Meanings

There are two types of verses in the Quran:

1. Clear and Easy Verses: These are understandable through common sense and basic knowledge of the Arabic language or translation. The main source for understanding these verses is the Arabic lexicon.
2. Extensive and Ambiguous Verses: These are not easy for common people to understand. The main source of understanding these verses is to consider the background and context in which they were revealed, as they deal with the legal commandments of Islamic laws. Knowledge of Hadith is necessary to gain a clear understanding of these verses.^[104]

Keeping these details in view, we can conclude that there are six sources through which knowledge of interpretation can be obtained:

1. Quran itself.
2. Prophetic interpretations.
3. Sayings of the companions.
4. Sayings of Tabi’een (followers of companions).
5. Arabic lexicon.
6. Logical reasoning (Qiyas).

First Source: The Quran Itself

The Quran interprets different ayahs within itself. For example:

فَتَلَقّٰٓى اٰدَمُ مِنۡ رَّبِّهٖ كَلِمٰتٍ فَتَابَ عَلَيۡهِ​ؕ اِنَّهٗ هُوَ التَّوَّابُ الرَّحِيۡمُ‏

“Thereupon Adam learned from his Lord some words and repented, and his Lord accepted his repentance, for He is Much-relenting and most compassionate.” Quran [2:37]

In this ayah, it is revealed that some particular words were taught to Adam, but it is not revealed what those words were. However, we can find the explanation of those words in another verse in the Quran:

قَالَا رَبَّنَا ظَلَمۡنَاۤ اَنۡفُسَنَا وَاِنۡ لَّمۡ تَغۡفِرۡ لَـنَا وَتَرۡحَمۡنَا لَـنَكُوۡنَنَّ مِنَ الۡخٰسِرِيۡنَ‏

“Our Lord! We have wronged ourselves. If You do not forgive us and do not have mercy on us, we shall surely be among the losers.” Quran [7:23]

In this verse, those particular words which were taught to Adam are revealed.

Second Source: Prophetic Interpretations

The second source of understanding the meanings of different words in the Quran is the actions (Amal) of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). The Quran was revealed to the Prophet, and it is important to find the true meanings of the Quran through the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH).

For example:

يٰۤـاَيُّهَا الَّذِيۡنَ اٰمَنُوۡۤا اِذَا قُمۡتُمۡ اِلَى الصَّلٰوةِ فَاغۡسِلُوۡا وُجُوۡهَكُمۡ وَاَيۡدِيَكُمۡ اِلَى الۡمَرَافِقِ وَامۡسَحُوۡا بِرُءُوۡسِكُمۡ وَاَرۡجُلَكُمۡ اِلَى الۡـكَعۡبَيۡنِ “Believers! When you stand up for prayer, wash your faces and your hands up to the elbows, and wipe your heads and wash your feet up to the ankles.” Quran [5:6]

The Prophet’s act in explaining this verse clarifies the method of ablution but leaves the specifics of the arms, head, and feet ambiguous.

Amr bin Yahya narrated that his father said to ‘Abdullah bin Zaid, who was the grandfather of ‘Amr bin Yahya: “Can you show me how the Messenger of Allah used to perform ablution?” ‘Abdullah bin Zaid said, “Yes.” So, he called for water, poured it over his hands, and washed his hands twice. Then he rinsed his mouth and sniffed water up into his nostrils three times. Then he washed his face three times and his arms up to his elbows twice. Then he wiped his head with his hands, from front to back. He started at the front of his head, then went with them to the nape of his neck, then brought them back, returning them to the place he started. Then he washed his feet.^[105]

The correct understanding of the words “marafiq,” “wamsahu,” and “ka’bain” is obtained from the prophetic action. No other person can interpret the verse differently because the act of the Prophet is the most authentic way to understand the commandment of the Quran regarding ablution.

Similarly, the commandments of different Islamic laws and prayers and the whole method of prayer are preserved through the Sunnah (act) of the Prophet.

Third Source: The Sayings of the Companions

If the meaning of any word or verse is not found in the prophetic interpretation, then the most authentic source to get the understanding is the companions of the Prophet. The companions of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) learned the Quran directly from the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and were masters in understanding the Quran because their language was Arabic and they completely knew the circumstances in which different verses of the Quran were revealed.

Rahman Sulmi Tabi’ee claims that the Prophet’s companions did not continue until they had learned all of the knowledge and applications of that verse.^[106]

An example of Quranic interpretation by companions

They interpreted the Quran based on their knowledge and wisdom, as shown below:

ذَٰلِكَ بِأَنَّهُمْ قَالُوٓا۟ إِنَّمَا ٱلْبَيْعُ مِثْلُ ٱلرِّبَوٰا۟ ۗ وَأَحَلَّ ٱللَّهُ ٱلْبَيْعَ وَحَرَّمَ ٱلرِّبَوٰا۟ ۚ

“That is because they say that trade is no different than interest. But Allah has permitted trading and forbidden interest.”

Quran [2:275]

Abdullah ibn Abbas and other companions understood from this verse that paying or charging interest on loans is strictly prohibited because of its exploitative nature. They concluded that interest is harmful and its usefulness is less comparatively. They derived this understanding based on their knowledge of the Arabic language, the context of revelation, and direct guidance from the Prophet.^[107]

Fourth Source: The Sayings of the Tabi’een

Scholars differ on whether the sayings of Tabi’een’s interpretation could be acceptable or not. The condition for accepting the understanding of a Tabi’ee is:

• If the saying of a Tabi’ee is directly narrated from a companion, then it would be acceptable and will have the same status as the saying of a companion.
• If the saying of a Tabi’ee exegesis is different from any other Tabi’ee, then his saying or interpretation will not be accepted as it faces contradiction from the same level of Tabi’ee. However, if there is no difference or contradiction in the statements of Tabi’een regarding exegesis, then their sayings would be acceptable without any doubt.

Fifth Source: Arabic Language

A deep knowledge of the Arabic language is necessary to get a clear understanding of the meanings of words in the Quran. The only language which is lawful for the interpretation of the Quran is Arabic, without any dispute among scholars. The understanding of verses with no ambiguity would be directly interpreted by using the lexicon of Arabic or common understanding. However, if the verse contains ambiguity, then lexicon Arabic would not be enough to interpret the meaning of Quranic verses and words.

In situations of ambiguity in specific words and verses, the interpretation will be directly derived from the prophetic tradition and sayings of companions and Tabi’een. Arabic is a vast language and its single word could be interpreted in several ways, but explanations directly drawn from only the Arabic language could create confusion. Therefore, background and prophetic tradition are necessary to be considered along with the Arabic language.

If there is no interpretation available of any verse from the Prophet and companions, then the interpretation would be directly drawn from the Arabic language in the light of idioms and Arabic expressions commonly used in Arabic.

If anyone tries to conclude Arabic terms used in poetry but not commonly used, it is wrong even though it is mentioned in the dictionaries.^[108]

It could clearly be understood by the following example:

وَاِذِ اسۡتَسۡقَىٰ مُوۡسٰى لِقَوۡمِهٖ فَقُلۡنَا اضۡرِب بِّعَصَاكَ الۡحَجَرَ

“And recall when Moses prayed for water for his people and We replied: ‘Strike the rock with your staff.'” Quran [2:60]

In this verse, the word “midrib” is used, which means striking. The command of striking the rock was given to Moses, but some orientalists claim that this word was revealed to order Moses to walk on the rock rather than strike, using the vague usage of the Arabic language. Even if the interpretation of this word is drawn from a vague reference, the common usage of the language rejects it altogether because an Arabic-speaking person will clearly understand that the word “midrib” is interpreted in the meaning of striking due to its common usage.

Sixth Source: Logical Reasoning (Qiyas)

Qiyas, along with other sources such as Hadith (Prophetic traditions) and ijma (consensus), contribute to the dynamic development of Islamic legal thought. Allah created humans with common sense, which is needed in all fields of life. Quranic interpretations are derived from the mentioned five sources along with common sense. As we know, the Quran is a book of mysteries and it is not possible to reach a climax in the exegesis of the Quran where no room is needed for further explanation.

لَـٰمَسْتُمُ ٱلنِّسَآءَ فَلَمْ تَجِدُوا۟ مَآءًۭ فَتَيَمَّمُوا۟ صَعِيدًۭا طَيِّبًۭا

“(Take a bath if) you have touched your wives and (if) cannot find water, then purify yourselves with clean earth.” Quran [4:43]

In this verse, the commandment of bath is necessary for touching the women. However, after applying logical reasoning (Qiyas), Islamic scholars concluded that the commandment of bath is only necessary after intercourse, and touching women (wives) in a non-sexual way does not obligate the commandment of bath. The word “Lamastum” is used as a gesticulation word for intercourse.

However, it is important to keep in mind that the interpretations derived through common sense should not clash with other basic principles of Islam and sources of exegesis.

Allegorical or Literal Meaning

It is necessary to know the Arabic language, literature, grammar, and composition to fully understand the principles and commands of the Quran. The knowledge of Lisaan Al-Arab makes it easy to interpret the word according to common usage.

To interpret certain words in the Quran, it is a recognized rule within authoritative scholars of interpretation that the literal meaning is usually applied. Allegorical meaning would be applied only in situations where the literal meaning is difficult to adopt due to some reasons, i.e., Qareena.^[109]

The reason is explained below: When observation shows that the literal meaning of a specific word does not fit with the context of the verse, then the allegorical meaning is used:

فَقَلِيۡلًا مَّا يُؤۡمِنُوۡنَ‏ “So scarcely do they believe.”

Quran [2:88]

In this verse, the word “Qaleel” is used to explain the total denial of disbelievers, but the literal meaning of this word is “a little.” If we apply the literal meaning in Arabic, it would alter the meaning of this verse completely. That is why the allegorical meaning is necessary to use here, which proves the context of the verse that they do not believe at all.

The matter of interpreting the words of the Quran is not only limited to allegorical meanings; sometimes a word may have several meanings in Arabic. In this situation, the nearest and explicit meaning would be applied, and distant meanings shall not be adopted unless there is a solid reason to reject the nearest meaning.

Allama Baadaruddin Zarkashi said: “The likelihood of more than one meaning of a word shall be considered first. When one meaning is clearer than the other, then such a clear word will be applied, except there is a reason to prefer the rare meaning; otherwise, the rare meaning shall be used.”^[110]

Some people have fallen prey to the modernist interpretations of the words of the Quran, where they ignore the principles of exegesis. They claim that the word Salah means submission to the leader, Hajj means to visit the leader, and Saum means to refrain from wrongdoings (not stopping from eating and drinking).

These orientalists strangely described the miracles of Moses, calling the staff (Rod; Asa e Musa) victory and the shades of clouds establishing their rule. Due to the influence of Western philosophy, these modernists called miracles superstitions and interpreted them according to their rationale. In this way, they have made half of the Quranic verses allegorical, proverbial, or metaphorical, which is not a correct approach for the exegesis of the Quran.^[111]

Reasoning of Arguments

The true meaning of Quranic words is determined through different degrees of argument and reasoning. Conclusive and presumptive arguments are employed to determine the true and preserved meaning of the Quranic verses.

If the recorded arguments (Quran and Hadith) in terms of Mutashabihat contradict the rationale, it would be said that the obvious meanings are not intended and other meanings would be adopted informally. If the informal meaning is not best formulated, it would be said that the true meaning is best known by Allah.^[112]

Interpretation of the meanings of the Quran is determined through three types of human rationale or reason in the context of three types of Quranic arguments: conclusive, presumptive, and conjectural.

• Conclusive reason is the strongest form of reason, i.e., (2+2 = 4; this is a conclusive reason).
• Presumptive reason falls in the medium level, i.e., (logical statement may not be certain and cannot be taken as absolute).
• Conjectural argument is the weakest form because it is always imaginary.

Similarly, there are three types of exegesis arguments to keep in consideration while interpreting the words and verses of the Quran:

Conclusive arguments are put in the first degree of argument as it is supported by the Quran and Mutawatir (uninterrupted) explicitly. Conclusive recorded arguments are explicit in their understanding.

Example: وَلَا تَقْرَبُوا الزِّنَا “Do not even go near fornication (zina).”

Quran [17:32]

This verse is conclusive and obvious in argument because of textual clarification.

Another example is the ruling on Zihar: The term “Zihar” mentioned in the Quran means “back” in Arabic and it refers to a specific practice that was prevalent in pre-Islamic Arabia where a husband would declare that his wife is like his mother’s back (forbidden for marital relations, i.e., divorce). ٱلَّذِينَ يُظَـٰهِرُونَ مِنكُم مِّن نِّسَآئِهِم مَّا هُنَّ أُمَّهَـٰتُهِمْ ۖ إِنْ أُمَّهَـٰتُهُمْ إِلَّا ٱلَّـٰٓـِٔى وَلَدْنَهُمْ ۚ “Those of you who ˹sinfully˺ divorce their wives by comparing them to their mothers ˹should know that˺ their wives are in no way their mothers. None can be their mothers except those who gave birth to them.”

Quran [58:2]

The word and ruling on Zihar are explicitly conclusive due to the textual clarification, prophetic tradition, and Ijma (consensus) of the Ummah.

Presumptive arguments are put in the second degree of argument because their transmission is not as conclusive as the Quran and uninterrupted tradition.

Example:

اَلرَّحۡمٰنُ عَلَى الۡعَرۡشِ اسۡتَوٰى “The Most Compassionate Lord is settled on the Throne (of the Universe).” Quran [20:5]

The word “Istawa” can have several meanings, which is why this word is presumptive even though the verse is conclusive. Logical argument demands that the word “Ottawa” should conceive a body, but Allah does not have physical characteristics. The Ummah agreed that the obvious meaning of this verse is not intended. Some scholars said that the word conceived an allegorical meaning here, and some said the meaning of this word is best known to Allah. This type of interpretation falls in the category of presumptive argument because the obvious meaning is different among the conclusive logical argument and presumptive recorded argument.^[113]

Another example of presumptive interpretation that is not conclusive is: قَالَ هٰذَا رَحۡمَةٌ مِّنۡ رَّبِّىۡ​ ۚ فَاِذَا جَآءَ وَعۡدُ رَبِّىۡ جَعَلَهٗ دَكَّآءَ​ ۚ وَكَانَ وَعۡدُ رَبِّىۡ حَقًّا ؕ‏ ”

Dhu al-Qarnayn said: ‘This is a mercy from my Lord: but when the time of my Lord’s promise shall come, He will level the rampart with the ground.'”

Quran [18:98]

In this verse, the word “Wa’du Rabbi—Promise of Lord” is not conclusive in interpretation because some scholars interpret that this promise is about the Day of Judgment, and others argue that this promise is about breaking the wall of Gog and Magog. That is why we can conclude that the word is presumptive here and may conceive both interpretations.^[114]

However, true and proficient knowledge, understanding, caution, and fear of God are needed to interpret the arguments truly. Not every common person is eligible to interpret the Quran through his limited knowledge.

Exegesis of the Early Era

A large number of companions are known for their services in the science of exegesis. Companions are the most reliable source of interpreting the meanings of words in the Quran because of their knowledge of the Arabic language and direct learning from the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Some exegesis from the early era are as follows:

Exegesis of Abdullah Ibn Abbas

Abdullah ibn Abbas is best known for the interpretation of the Quran in the early era due to his distinctive knowledge of the Quran. He is called the Imam ul Mufassirin (The leader of the commentators), with a large number of narrations in connection with the interpretation of the Quran.

One reason is that the Prophet specifically prayed for his proficiency in the knowledge of the Quran and its interpretation.

It is narrated that the Prophet placed his hand on the head of ibn Abbas and prayed: “O Allah, give him abundance in it and spread Your religion through him.”^[115]

In another narration, it is reported that the Prophet prayed: “You are a good interpreter of the Quran.”^[116]

Abdullah ibn Abbas reported that after the death of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), he said to one of the persons from Ansar that many companions of the Prophet are still alive. They should go and seek knowledge from them. The man replied, “Do you think that people would need your knowledge?” Hence, he did not accompany ibn Abbas, who then set on the task alone.

Ibn Abbas used to go to the homes of companions to learn many things from them. Sometimes he would go to the home of a companion at noon, and if he was resting, ibn Abbas would wait outside while the hot wind blew sand on his face. When the companion came out, he would say, “O cousin of the Prophet, why did you trouble yourself? You should have come to me, and I would have come to you.” Ibn Abbas would reply, “No, it was my duty to come to you.” Then he would ask about the Hadith about which he had gone to him.

The Ansar companion who refused to come with him at that time lived long enough to see people gathered around ibn Abbas, asking questions. At that time, he said that ibn Abbas was cleverer than him.^[117]

A time came when there was always a large number of students gathered around Abdullah ibn Abbas, and he taught them the exegesis of the Quran, the prophetic traditions, and the juridical maxims.^[118] However, there are two types of narrations from Abdullah ibn Abbas in connection with exegesis: some of them are strong and others are weak. To benefit from them, those narrations must be verified through the knowledge of Hadith.

At the time of Imam Ahmad, a collection of exegesis of ibn Abbas was found in Egypt. Later on, this transcript became extinct, and before that, a large part of it was reported by commentators and traditionalists. Imam Bukhari, Hafiz ibn Hajar, Ibn Al-Munzar, and Ibn Abi Hatim reported on it in their books.^[119]

A book named Tanwir ul Miqyas Fi Tafsir ibn Abbas has been published in modern times and is considered to be the Tafsir of ibn Abbas. However, this is incorrect because the chain of the book connecting it to ibn Abbas is not authentic as it is based on the weak reporting sequence.^[120]

Exegesis of Ali ibn Abi Talib

Ali ibn Abi Talib holds a very high place in the exegesis of the Quran. He had a great knowledge of the Quran, and a large number of narrations in connection with the exegesis of the Quran have been reported.

As reported by Tufayl, he saw Ali ibn Abi Talib addressing and saying: “Ask me about the book of Allah. By God! There is no verse of the Quran about which I do not know whether it was revealed in the day or during the night, on the ground or the mountain.”^[121]

Ali ibn Abi Talib settled in Kufa, a city in Iraq. His students were from Kufa, who learned the knowledge of the Quran from him. This is the reason that most of his narrations are reported by the Kufi people.

Exegesis of Abdullah ibn Mas’ud

Abdullah ibn Mas’ud holds a significant place in the narration of exegesis of the Quran. His narrations are even more than Ali ibn Abi Talib’s.

As reported by Ibn Jarir: “Abdullah ibn Mas’ud used to say that by the being save whom there is no worthy of worship, I know of every verse of the book of Allah about whom and where it was revealed. If I know the address of a person who knows the book of Allah more than I do, then I would go to him, provided the camels can reach that place.”^[122]

Tabi’ee Masruq said Abdullah bin Mas’ud would recite a surah for us and spend the whole day interpreting the surah and relating it to the prophetic tradition.^[123]

Exegesis of Ubay Bin Ka’ab

Ubay bin Ka’ab is a renowned companion in early exegesis and recitation. His proficient status could be observed from the fact that the famous companion in exegesis took lessons from him.

As reported by Muammar: “Most of the narrations of the learnings of ibn Abbas have been derived from Umar, Ali, and Ubay bin Ka’ab.”^[124]

Narrations related to the exegesis of the Quran have also been reported by Muaz bin Jabal, Zayd bin Thabit, Abdullah bin Umar, Abdullah bin Amr, Sayyeda Ayesha, Abu Musa Ash’ari, Jabir, Anas, and Abu Hurairah.

Problematic Narration About the Quran

Several seemingly problematic narrations about the Quran exist in Muslim testimonies, some of which suggest that the Quran is not preserved. However, a critical analysis of these narrations reveals that this is not the case. In this section, we will examine four such seemingly problematic narrations about the Quran.

Verse on Sucklings

وَالۡوَالِدٰتُ يُرۡضِعۡنَ اَوۡلَادَهُنَّ حَوۡلَيۡنِ كَامِلَيۡنِ لِمَنۡ اَرَادَ اَنۡ يُّتِمَّ الرَّضَاعَةَ ​ ؕ

“If they (i.e., the fathers) wish that the period of suckling for their children be completed, mothers may suckle their children for two whole years.” Quran [2:233]

This verse is absolute in its commandment about suckling a child to prove the sanctity of breastfeeding.

We find a verse in a narration that provides the limitation on this verse about five sucklings, but we cannot find that verse in the current Quranic scripture.

The narration is given below:

“It had been revealed in the Holy Quran that ten clear sucklings make the marriage unlawful, then it was abrogated (and substituted) by five sucklings and Allah’s Apostle (peace be upon him) died and it was before that time (found) in the Holy Quran (and recited by the Muslims).”

After reading this narration, one could suspect the stability and preservation of the Quranic transmission and scripture.

But here is a deep analysis to throw light on the fact of narrations which state that in the beginning ten feedings or sucklings by the child were obligatory to establish the sanctity of breastfeeding; then both this verse and its ruling were abrogated.

Then the commandment of five feedings was revealed in the Holy Quran, and this verse continued to be recited until the death of the Holy Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). The recitation of this verse was abrogated before the death of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), but its order remained.

To understand the transmission of Quranic verses, the rules of abrogation are required to be understood clearly.

There are three types of abrogations:

1. The one whose recitation and command both are abrogated. Such as the abrogation of ten sucklings, both the words and commandments were abrogated at the time of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH).
2. The one whose commandment is still there, but the recitation was abrogated by the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Such as the abrogation of the words of the verse of “rajam” in the Quran, but the commandment is obligatory.
3. The one whose commandment is abrogated, but the recitation is still there. Such as “Those of you who die and leave wives behind, let them make a will for their wives” This verse is still part of the Quran and being recited, but the commandment making it obligatory was abrogated by the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH).

The verse of breastfeeding in which the five sucklings are mentioned is related to the second category, which states that the words or recitation are abrogated but the commandment of five sucklings is still there.

The proof of the commandment of five sucklings could be seen in the life of the Prophet where he ordered Sahla bint Suhail to feed Salim and she gave him five breastfeeds. So, Aisha used to tell the daughters of her sisters and brothers to give him five breastfeeds whom Aisha wanted to visit and who wanted to visit Aisha.^[125]

It is similar to the commandment of Rajam, whose recitation is abrogated but if a married person commits zina, he would be obliged to the punishment of Rajam (stoning) because the commandment is not abrogated by the Prophet and the act of the Prophet and Sahaba was according to this commandment.

As reported by Aisha: “What was revealed in the Quran was ten definite sucklings, five were abrogated from that, so it became five definite sucklings. Then the Messenger of Allah died while the matter remained like that.”^[126]

Imam Tirmidhi said; that Aisha and other wives of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) used to give Fatwa according to this commandment of five sucklings after the death of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Other scholars of Islamic jurisprudence followed the viewpoint of Aisha.

As reported by Aisha: “The Messenger of Allah (PBUH) died, and these verses were being recited in the Holy Quran, (Zamma on the verb) means that the recitation of five sucklings was abrogated very late, until the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) passed away and some people continued to read the verses of five sucklings and considered them to be verses of the Quran. Due to the nearness of time, the order regarding the prescription of the recitation was not reached. Then when they (people) came to know about the abrogation of recitation, they turned away from (reciting) them.”^[127]

Aisha and the Quran (2:238)

حَـٰفِظُوا۟ عَلَى ٱلصَّلَوَٰتِ وَٱلصَّلَوٰةِ ٱلْوُسْطَىٰ وَقُومُوا۟ لِلَّهِ قَـٰنِتِينَ “Observe the five obligatory prayers—especially the middle prayer—and stand in true devotion to Allah.”

Quran [2:238]

In this verse, the commandment of preserving the middle prayer is given, but the name of that middle prayer is not mentioned in the Quran.

We find a narration that narrates that the verse mentioned the name of the middle prayer as the Al-Asr prayer, but in the current Quranic scripture that name is not found.

So, it is necessary to explain the explicit meaning of that verse in regards to that specific narration which gives an impression of a broken chain in the transmission of the Holy Quran to the people who are unaware of the suspicion of some orientalists.

The narration is given below:

Abu Yunus (the freed slave of Aisha) said: “‘A’isha ordered me to transcribe a copy of the Quran for her and said: When you reach this verse: Guard the prayers and the middle prayer, inform me; so, when I reached it, I informed her and she gave me dictation (like this):

حافظوا على الصلٰوت والصلٰوۃ الوسطٰی و صلٰوۃ العصر

‘Guard the prayers and the middle prayer and the Al-Asr prayer, and stand up truly obedient to Allah.’ ‘A’isha said: This is how I have heard from the Messenger of Allah (PBUH).”^[128]

But the people of knowledge know that the verse was first revealed like that, but after some time, the word Al-Asr was abrogated.

As reported by Al-Bara bin al Azib: “This verse was revealed (in this way): Guard the prayers and the ‘Asr prayer. We recited it (in this very way) so long as Allah desired. Allah, then, abrogated it and it was revealed: Guard the prayers and the middle prayer. A person who was sitting with Shaqiq (one of the narrators in the chain of transmitters) said: Now it implies the ‘Asr prayer. Upon this, al-Bara said: I have already informed you how this (verse) was revealed and how Allah abrogated it, and Allah knows best.”^[129]

This narration proves that the word middle prayer remained absolute, but the word Al-Asr was abrogated at the time of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH).

Even after the abrogation of the words in which the name of the middle prayer was mentioned at the time of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), some companions disagreed among themselves and they asked the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) about the name of the middle prayer.

As reported by Kaheel bin Harmala: Hazrat Abu Hurairah (RA) came to Damascus and stayed with Abu Kulthum al-Sudusi. There was a difference between us, Hazrat Abu Huraira said: You have also started a difference like us. We were near the Holy House of the Messenger of Allah in Quba, among us was a good man Abu Hashim bin Utbah bin Rabi’ah, he stood up and attended the service of the Messenger of Allah, he used to have such courage, (he He asked the Messenger of Allah about the problem) and returned. When he came back, he told us that (Salat al-Wusta) is the Asr prayer.”^[130]

If the name of the middle prayer was mentioned in the verse, then the companions would never have disagreed on a mentioned thing. We can conclude that the abrogation took place a long time ago and companions disputed the name of the middle prayer because it was abrogated and the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) informed Sahaba about the middle prayer when they asked.

Now, the question is, if the words of Al-Asr were abrogated from that verse, then why did Aisha and other wives like Umm e Salma and Hafsa order their Katib to write the name Al-Asr along with the middle prayer?

Firstly, in the narration of Abu Yusuf, it is mentioned that Aisha ordered him to write a scripture for her, and she wanted to add detailed interpretations in her scripture that were not contradictory to the current scripture of the Mushaf e Usman.

All the wives of the Prophet like Umm e Salma, Hafsa, and Aisha had their scriptures in which all of the wives of the Prophet interpreted the verses for themselves. It is wrong to conclude that their interpretations were part of the Quranic verses.

Secondly, if the words of this recitation are to be considered Quranic words, then it is obvious that the recitation of the Quran is not proven from Khabr e Wahid (single narration) unless it is mutawatir (frequency is proven).

Also, it was not taken, nor are these words in the recitation of the seven reciters, nor has this recitation been found by any other reliable reciter. Besides this, there is another hadith which proves the abrogation of this recitation.

The Quran was indeed copied during the time of the Messenger of Allah (PBUH). The recitation of some verses was abrogated and the order of some was abrogated. At the time of his death, the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) left the Quran, now it is with the Muslims and there is a consensus of the Muslims on it.^[131]

Goat Ate Quran

It was narrated that ‘Aishah said: “The verse of stoning and of breastfeeding an adult ten times was revealed, and the paper was with me under my pillow. When the Messenger of Allah died, we were preoccupied with his death, and a tame sheep came in and ate it.”^[132]

Some orientalists target Islam and the preservation of the Quran by using this verse, saying that the verses of the Quran were eaten by a goat. By this foolish argument, they try to prove that the verses of the Quran were not transmitted properly or were lost after the death of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH).

The authenticity of this narration;

We check whether the narration is really that strong to be augmented with or not.

1. This narration is reported by four chains which include Malik bin Anas, Yahya bin Sa’eed, Hammad bin Salama, and Muhammad bin Ishaq from Aisha.

The narration of Muhammad bin Ishaq reported in Ibn e Majah has a flaw in its chain, but the other narrations in Musnad e Ahmed are strong and reliable because the Ravi Muhammad bin Ishaq reports the chain (Sanad) by the word (عن; An) which is a vague way of describing the hadith. So, if a narrator uses this way to describe the hadith, then that hadith falls in the category of weak authenticity because the narrator does not describe the name of the one from whom he is narrating.

Muhammad bin Ishaq is famous for (Daedalus; hiding) this unreliable way of reporting. That is why the narration reported by him in regards to the Quran eaten by a goat is not authentic because the other three narrators never mentioned such words in their narration and those three narrators (Malik bin Anas, Yahya bin Sa’eed, and Hammad bin Salama) are more reliable and authentic than ibn e Ishaq. That is why this narration in which extra words by an unreliable Ravi are included is not acceptable.

1. Even if this tradition of chains is considered authentic, then this tradition cannot challenge the transmission and preservation of the Quran.

The reason is that this narration is about the verses of stoning and ten breastfeeding which were already abrogated at the time of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH).

The Prophet ordered them not to write the verses of stoning in the Quran.

As reported by Kathir bin Salat: “Zayd bin Thabit said, ‘I heard the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) saying that if a married man and woman commit adultery, stone them to death.’ Umar said to him, ‘When this was said, I came to the service of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and asked him to write it, but he disliked it.'”^[133]

So, if the goat ate the verses related to the commandment of stoning, then it does not affect the preservation of the Quran because the Prophet himself ordered the companions to remove it from the scripture.

1. It is known that the Quran was preserved not only in the form of scripture but also by memorization. There were a lot of companions who memorized and wrote the Quran for themselves, Aisha was not the only one who had those verses.

Ibn Mas’ud’s view about the Quran

Narrated by Abd al-Rahman bin Yazid:

Ibn Mas’ud did not include Mu’awiztin and Fatiha in the Mushaf, saying that they are not part of the Quran.”^[134]

In this narration, one could conclude that the last two surahs of the Quran, which are part of Mushaf e Usmani, are not part of the Quran.

However, the authenticity of this narration is not reliable because it is only narrated by Abduk Rahman bin Yazeed, which is not acceptable. After all, Muhaddithin has written that the narration is Shaz, i.e., the contradiction of a reliable narrator with a group of narrators who are more reliable than him. The words of narrating “these two are not from the book of Allah” are only narrated by Abdul Rahman ibn Yazeed, which is not acceptable regarding other narrations. Shaz’s narration in contrast with mutawatir is not acceptable because it is considered Khabr e Wahid.

Other narrations which are reported by Asim and Zar are also not acceptable because they contrast with the four famous Qirat, including the Qirat of Asim and Zar, which are mutawatir, and they reported mu’awzateen from Abdullah bin Mas’ud.

Four famous and frequent recitations of Hamza, Asim, Kisayi, and Khalaf narrate from ibn e Abbas that there are Mu’awzteen and Fatiha. It is clear from this that ibn e Masud considered them to be a part of the Quran and recited them. The ijmah of Ummah proves that chains of these Qirat are the most powerful and authentic which are narrated from generation to generation.^[135]

Al-Suyuti writes concerning Abu Bakr al-Baqalani: “It cannot be proved about Abdullah bin Mas’ud that these two surahs are not part of the Holy Quran. This is because he used to write in his Mushaf only by the order of the Messenger of Allah, and he did not hear any order regarding these two Surahs.”^[136]

Not writing the surahs in Mushaf was not because he did not consider them to be a part of the Quran but it was because of the reason that he did not get the order from the prophet.

From all of this explanation, one can clearly understand that the preservation of the Quran is not dependent on single narrations (Akhbar e Ahad) when there are Mutawatir narrations present in contrast. The chains of four recitations from Abdullah bin Mas’ud are clear evidence that he used to order his students to write these surahs in their Mushaf.

Conclusion

An in-depth analysis of the preservation of the Quran, including its historical background and the use of different transmission mechanisms in the manuscripts, provides evidence supporting Allah’s assertion in the Quran that its word and meaning are safeguarded. Although I may not have addressed every minute aspect, I have endeavored to encompass the most crucial elements. Having studied this, I can confidently state that this document successfully refutes the majority of the assertions made by orientalists in the past two centuries, who have sought to undermine the genuineness of the Quran.

Publisher: Wisdom Connect

Website: www.wisdomconnect.io

Contact: info@wisdomconnect.io

License: This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit Creative Commons.

Notes

1. Contextual reasons or circumstances for the revelation of specific verses. ↑
2. Verses revealed before and after the migration of Prophet Muhammad from Mecca to Medina. ↑
3. The different modes or ways in which the Qur’an was revealed and recited. ↑
4. The concept of abrogating and abrogated verses or rulings in the Qur’an. ↑
5. Clear and unambiguous verses versus ambiguous or allegorical ones. ↑
6. General and specific verses or terms within the Qur’an. ↑
7. Absolute and restricted terms or rulings in the Qur’an. ↑
8. The inimitable and miraculous nature of the Qur’an’s language and content. ↑
9. The interpretation or exegesis of the Qur’anic text. ↑
10. The grammatical analysis and syntactical structure of the Qur’an. ↑
11. Rare or uncommon words found in the Qur’an. ↑
12. Al-Tirmidhi, Jami’ at-Tirmidhi, hadith no. 1162. ↑
13. Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim, hadith no. 2553. ↑
14. Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, hadith no. 1917. ↑
15. Al-Hakim al-Nishapuri, Al-Mustadrak ala al-Sahihayn, hadith no. 3419. ↑
16. Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim, hadith no. 854. ↑
17. Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, hadith no. 3360. ↑
18. Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim, Hadith no. 1218. ↑
19. Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, hadith no. 4570. ↑
20. Al-Suyuti, Al Itqan fi Uloom al-Qur’an, vol. 2, p. 187. ↑
21. Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, hadith no. 4937. ↑
22. Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, hadith no. 4970. ↑
23. Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, hadith no. 6581. ↑
24. Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim, hadith no. 1428. ↑
25. Abu Dawud, Sunan Abi Dawud, hadith no. 3666. ↑
26. Ibn Sa’d, At-Tabaqat al-Kubra, edited by ‘Ali Muhammad al-Bajawi, vol. 2, p. 338. ↑
27. Ibn Abi Shaiba, Musannaf Ibn Abi Shaiba, Hadith no. 32772. ↑
28. Ahmad ibn Hanbal, The Virtues of the Companions, vol. 2, p. 803. ↑
29. Ibn Abd al-Barr, Al-Isti’ab fi ma’rifat al-ashab, vol. 3, p. 207. ↑
30. Ibn Hisham, Sirat al-Nabi, vols. 1–2 (Cairo: Maktabat al-Turath, 1955), pp. 343–46. ↑
31. Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim, hadith no. 413. ↑
32. Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim, hadith no. 413. ↑
33. Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, hadith no. 6982. ↑
34. Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, hadith no. 6982. ↑
35. Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, hadith no. 4981. ↑
36. Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim, hadith no. 4629 ↑
37. Al-Tirmidhi, Jami’ at-Tirmidhi, hadith no. 2091. ↑
38. Al-Tirmidhi, Jami’ at-Tirmidhi, hadith no. 2682. ↑
39. Al-Tirmidhi, Jami’ at-Tirmidhi, hadith no. 2649. ↑
40. Ibn Majah, Sunan Ibn Majah, hadith no. 2157. ↑
41. Ibn Majah, Sunan Ibn Majah, hadith no. 2715. ↑
42. Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, hadith no. 5028. ↑
43. Al-Tirmidhi, Jami’ at-Tirmidhi, hadith no. 2910. ↑
44. Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Musnad Ahmad, hadith no. 2534. ↑
45. Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, hadith no. 4302. ↑
46. Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, hadith no. 684. ↑
47. Al-Nawawi, Riyadh-as-Saliheen, Book 8, Hadith no. 996. ↑
48. Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, hadith no. 1409. ↑
49. Abu Dawood, Sunan Abu Dawood, hadith no. 1464. ↑
50. Al-Tirmidhi, Jami’ at-Tirmidhi, hadith no. 2913. ↑
51. Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim, hadith no. 1844 ↑
52. Mahmood Salim Ubaydah, Diraasaat fi ‘Uloom al-Qur’an (Jordan: Dar Ammaar, 1990), 120. ↑
53. Safi-ur-Rahman Mubarakpuri, Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar) (Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1996), 170. ↑
54. Al-Dhahabi, A’lam al-Nubala’, vol. 2, p. 430. ↑
55. Jabal, Wathāqat naql al-naṣṣ al-Qur’anī, 169n2. ↑
56. Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim, hadith no. 7510. ↑
57. M. M. Azami, Studies In Early Hadith Literature (Indianapolis, Indiana: American Trust Publications, 1992), 22-25. ↑
58. Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim, hadith no. 1869 ↑
59. Arthur Jeffery, The Collection of the Qur’an (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 14. ↑
60. Muhammad ‘Abd al-Adheem az-Zarqaanee, Manaahil al-‘Irfaan fi ‘Uloom al-Qur’aan (Cairo: Dar al-Fikr, n.d.), vol. 1, 271. ↑
61. Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, hadith no. 3624. ↑
62. Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, hadith no. 6. ↑
63. Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, hadith no. 4986. ↑
64. Abu Bakr Abdullah bin Suleiman Ibn Abee Dawood, Kitab al-Masahif (Riyadh: Maktabat al-Ma’arif, 1985), 3. ↑
65. Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, hadith no. 5003. ↑
66. Abdullah bin Saleh al-Hamad, Rasam al-Masahif: Darasat e Lughawiyah wa Tarikhiya (Madinah: Majma’ al-Malik Fahd, 1999), 112. ↑
67. Badr al-Din Muhammad az-Zarkashi, Al-Burhan fi Uloom al-Qur’an (Cairo: Dar al-Ihya al-Kutub al-Arabiyah, 1957), vol. 1, 237. ↑
68. Abdullah bin Saleh al-Hamad, Rasam al-Masahif: Darasat e Lughawiyah wa Tarikhiya (Madinah: Majma’ al-Malik Fahd, 1999), 113. ↑
69. Abu Bakr Abdullah bin Suleiman Ibn Abee Dawood, Kitab al-Masahif (Riyadh: Maktabat al-Ma’arif, 1985), 10. ↑
70. Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, hadith no. 4986. ↑
71. Abu Bakr Abdullah bin Suleiman Ibn Abee Dawood, Kitab al-Masahif (Riyadh: Maktabat al-Ma’arif, 1985), 11. ↑
72. Abu Bakr Abdullah bin Suleiman Ibn Abee Dawood, Kitab al-Masahif (Riyadh: Maktabat al-Ma’arif, 1985), 8. ↑
73. Manna’ Qattaan, Mabahith fi ‘Ulum al-Qur’an (Beirut: Muassasat al-Risalat, 1983), 128. ↑
74. Abu Bakr Abdullah bin Suleiman Ibn Abee Dawood, Kitab al-Masahif (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah, 1985), 10. ↑
75. This incident is reported in al-Bukhaaree. Other narrations imply that such a disagreement had also occurred in Madinah, and when Hudhayfah informed ‘Uthman of the situation in Azerbaijan, this further alarmed ‘Uthman, and caused him to convene a gathering of the Companions. ↑
76. Abu Bakr Abdullah bin Suleiman Ibn Abee Dawood, Kitab al-Masahif (Riyadh: Maktabat al-Ma’arif, 1985), 22. ↑
77. Shams ad-Din Muhammad adh-Dhahabee, Siyar A’lam al-Nubala (Beirut: Muassasat al-Risalah, 1982), vol. 3, 449. ↑
78. Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, hadith no. 3506. ↑
79. Abdullah bin Saleh al-Hamad, Rasam al-Masahif: Darasat e Lughawiyah wa Tarikhiya (Madinah: Majma’ al-Malik Fahd, 1999), 126-127. ↑
80. Abu Bakr Abdullah bin Suleiman Ibn Abee Dawood, Kitab al-Masahif (Riyadh: Maktabat al-Ma’arif, 1985), 13-18. ↑
81. Isma’il bin ‘Umar Ibn Katheer, Al-Bidayah wa an-Nihaayah (Beirut: Maktabat al-Ma’arif, 1985), vol. 7, 207. ↑
82. Muhammad ‘Abd al-Adheem az-Zarqaanee, Manaahil al-‘Irfaan fi ‘Uloom al-Qur’aan (Cairo: Dar al-Fikr, n.d.), 1:262. ↑
83. Muhammad ‘Abd al-Adheem az-Zarqaanee, Manaahil al-‘Irfaan fi ‘Uloom al-Qur’aan (Cairo: Dar al-Fikr, n.d.), 1:404. ↑
84. Muhammad bin Abdur-Rahmaan Abu Sulaymaan, The Islamic Theory of International Relations (Herndon: International Institute of Islamic Thought, 1987), 28. ↑
85. Muhammad bin Abdur-Rahmaan Abu Sulaymaan, The Islamic Theory of International Relations (Herndon: International Institute of Islamic Thought, 1987), 31. ↑
86. Abdullah bin Saleh al-Hamad, Rasam al-Masahif: Darasat e Lughawiyah wa Tarikhiya (Madinah: Majma’ al-Malik Fahd, 1999), p. 492. ↑
87. Muhammad ‘Abd al-Adheem az-Zarqaanee, Manaahil al-‘Irfaan fi ‘Uloom al-Qur’aan (Cairo: Dar al-Fikr, n.d.), vol. 1, pp. 406-407; cf. Muhammad al-Badawee, Tareekh al-Khat al-Arabi wa Imla’ al-Rasm (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah, 2003), pp. 329-331. ↑
88. Muhammad ‘Abd al-Adheem az-Zarqaanee, Manaahil al-‘Irfaan fi ‘Uloom al-Qur’aan (Cairo: Dar al-Fikr, n.d.), v. 1, p. 407. ↑
89. Abdullah bin Saleh al-Hamad, Rasam al-Masahif: Darasat e Lughawiyah wa Tarikhiya (Madinah: Majma’ al-Malik Fahd, 1999), p. 516. ↑
90. Abdullah bin Saleh al-Hamad, Rasam al-Masahif: Darasat e Lughawiyah wa Tarikhiya (Madinah: Majma’ al-Malik Fahd, 1999), p. 517. ↑
91. Abdullah bin Saleh al-Hamad, Rasam al-Masahif: Darasat e Lughawiyah wa Tarikhiya (Madinah: Majma’ al-Malik Fahd, 1999), p. 518. ↑
92. Majallah Kuliyyah al-Qur’an al-Kareem, Islamic University of Madinah, 1983, vol. 1, pp. 355-362. ↑
93. Muhammad al-Badawee, Tareekh al-Khat al-Arabi wa Imla’ al-Rasm (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah, 2003), p. 337. ↑
94. David James, Qur’ans of the Mamluks (London: Alexandria Press, 1988), p. 6. ↑
95. The origin of these five symbols is the letters alif, yaa, waw, the letter sheen to represent the word shaddah (double letter), and the khaa without a dot to represent the word khuluw (empty), respectively. See al-Badawee, Tareekh al-Khat al-Arabi wa Imla’ al-Rasm, p. 330. ↑
96. For one of the most fascinating accounts of the development of the script of the mushaf, see Abdullah bin Saleh al-Hamad, Rasam al-Masahif: Darasat e Lughawiyah wa Tarikhiya (Madinah: Majma’ al-Malik Fahd, 1999). ↑
97. Abdullah bin Saleh al-Hamad, Rasam al-Masahif: Darasat e Lughawiyah wa Tarikhiya (Madinah: Majma’ al-Malik Fahd, 1999), p. 602. ↑
98. Abdullah bin Saleh al-Hamad, Rasam al-Masahif: Darasat e Lughawiyah wa Tarikhiya (Madinah: Majma’ al-Malik Fahd, 1999), p. 604. ↑
99. Ahmad Von Denffer, Ulum al-Qur’an: An Introduction to the Sciences of the Qur’an (Leicester: Islamic Foundation, 1983), p. 65; Abdullah bin Saleh al-Hamad, Rasam al-Masahif: Darasat e Lughawiyah wa Tarikhiya (Madinah: Majma’ al-Malik Fahd, 1999), pp. 601-606. ↑
100. Muhammad Taqi Usmani, The Authority of Sunnah (Karachi: Maktaba Maariful Qur’an, 2017), p. 84. ↑
101. Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, Tafsir al-Tabari (Jami’ al-bayan ‘an ta’wil al-Qur’an) (Cairo: Dar al-Ma’arif, 1968). ↑
102. Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, Hadith no. 4759. ↑
103. Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, Hadith no. 4620. ↑
104. Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti, Al-Itqan fi Uloom al-Qur’an, vol. 2 (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah, n.d.), 183, chap. 78. ↑
105. Ibn Majah, Sunan Ibn Majah, Hadith no. 434. ↑
106. Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti, Al-Itqan fi Uloom al-Qur’an, vol. 2 (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah, n.d.), 176, chap. 78. ↑
107. Ibn Majah, Sunan Ibn Majah, Hadith no. 2257. ↑
108. Badr al-Din Muhammad al-Zarkashi, Al-Burhan fi Uloom al-Qur’an, vol. 2 (Cairo: Dar al-Ihya al-Kutub al-Arabiyya, 1957), 16. ↑
109. Muhammad Taqi Usmani, Uloom ul Qur’an, vol. 1 (Karachi: Maktaba Maariful Qur’an, 2008), 412. ↑
110. Badr al-Din Muhammad al-Zarkashi, Al-Burhan fi Uloom al-Qur’an, vol. 2 (Cairo: Dar al-Ihya al-Kutub al-Arabiyya, 1957), 167. ↑
111. Muhammad Taqi Usmani, Uloom ul Qur’an, vol. 1 (Karachi: Maktaba Maariful Qur’an, 2008), 414. ↑
112. Imam Razi, Asas Taqdis fi ilm al kalam, pp. 72-73. ↑
113. Muhammad Taqi Usmani, Uloom ul Qur’an (Karachi: Maktaba Maariful Qur’an, 2008), 433. ↑
114. Muhammad Taqi Usmani, Uloom ul Qur’an (Karachi: Maktaba Maariful Qur’an, 2008), 433. ↑
115. Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, Al-Isabah fi Tamyiz al-Sahaba, vol. 2 (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah, 1993), 320. ↑
116. Al-Suyuti, Itqan. Al Itqan fi Uloom al-Qur’an, vol. 2, p. 187. ↑
117. Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, Al-Isabah fi Tamyiz al-Sahaba, vol. 2 (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah, 1993), 323. Also cited in: Musnad Darimi and Tazkirat ul Huffaz by al-Zahabi, vol. 1, 38. ↑
118. Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, Al-Isabah fi Tamyiz al-Sahaba, vol. 2 (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah), 325. ↑
119. Al-Suyuti, Al-Itqan fi Uloom al-Qur’an, vol. 2, p. 188. ↑
120. Muhammad Taqi Usmani, Uloom ul Qur’an (Karachi: Maktaba Maariful Qur’an), 472. ↑
121. Al-Suyuti, Al-Itqan fi Uloom al-Qur’an, vol. 2 (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah, 2003), 187. ↑
122. Al-Suyuti, Al-Itqan fi Uloom al-Qur’an, vol. 2 (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah, 2003), 187. ↑
123. Al-Tabari, Tafsir Ibn Jarir, vol. 1, p. 27. ↑
124. Zahbi, Tazkirat ul Huffaz, vol. 1, p. 38. ↑
125. Sunan Abi Dawood, Hadith no. 2061. ↑
126. Sunan Abi Dawood, Hadith no. 2061. ↑
127. Al-Nawawi, Sharah Al Nawawi, vol. 1, p. 468. ↑
128. Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim, Hadith no. 1427. ↑
129. Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj. Sahih Muslim, Hadees no. 1428. ↑
130. Al-Hakim, Al-Mustadrak, Hadith no. 6691. ↑
131. Al-Tahmid, Al Tahmid, vol. 4, p. 278. ↑
132. Ibn Majah, Sunan Ibn Majah, Hadith no. 1944. ↑
133. Al-Hakim, Mustadrak al-Hakim, Hadith no. 8184. ↑
134. Ahmed ibn Hanbal, Musnad Ahmad, Hadith no. 21188. ↑
135. Anwar Shah Kashmiri, Faiz al-Bari (Karachi: Dar al-Ma’arif, 1985). ↑
136. Al-Suyuti, Al Itqaan, vol. 1, p. 271. ↑