Polyphony in the Quran: Diverse Voices, Divine Unity

Abstract

This article explores theological and linguistic dimensions based on the peculiar composition of the Quran in terms of speaking with many voices, including prophets, angels, animals, and even the great tempter Satan. This work determines whether these various entities, sometimes considered divine, detract from or enhance this book in being the Word of God. Through glasses of modern literary theory, such as Bakhtin’s concept of polyphony, the present study argues that such a diversity of voices lends nothing to the denial of divine authorship but underlines the intricateness and oneness of the Quran, its universal mentor. The paper then considers various scholarly opinions on the Quranic rhetoric, inimitable linguistic structure, and theological effects of its narrative strategies. This confirms that the multivocal nature of the Qur’an merely further embeds its theological and moral teachings rather than detracting from its divinity.

Authors Information

Maaz Ahmad, an Indian entrepreneur, dedicates his efforts to managing his IT firm and producing scholarly articles. He established Wisdom Connect to act as an intermediary between individuals without specialized knowledge and experts in the field. Haytem Sidky and Jonathan A.C. Brown, esteemed scholars, served as a source of inspiration and influence for his scholarly endeavors.

Sana Amjad is a dedicated learner pursuing courses in Islamic theology and psychology. She is a psychology student pursuing her undergraduate degree and holds a Master’s degree in Islamic Studies. Her primary reason for working is to fulfill her devotion to Allah and contribute to the welfare of the Muslim community.

Qur’an: Verses Proving It’s God’s Word

List of Verses

Surah At-Tawbah (9:6)

“If any of the idolaters ask you to give them refuge, give them asylum so that they may hear the words of God. Then, return them to their towns for they are ignorant people.”

This verse directly refers to the Qur’an as the words of God, affirming its divine origin.

Surah Al-Baqarah (2:75)

“Do you covet [the hope, O believers] that they would believe for you while a party of them used to hear the words of God and then distort it [the Torah] after they had understood it, while they were knowing?”

Another reference to the words of God shows that divine scripture, including the Qur’an, is God’s communication.

Surah Al-Fath (48:15)

“Those who remained behind will say when you set out toward the war booty to take it, ‘Let us follow you.’ They wish to change the words of God. Say, ‘You will not follow us. Thus has God said before.'”

This verse emphasizes that God’s words (i.e., the Qur’an) cannot be altered or changed.

Surah Yunus (10:15)

“And when Our verses are recited to them as clear evidence, those who do not expect the meeting with Us say, ‘Bring us a Qur’an other than this or change it.’ Say, ‘It is not for me to change it on my own accord. I only follow what is revealed to me. Indeed, I fear, if I should disobey my Lord, the punishment of a tremendous Day.'”

Here, it is made clear that the Prophet Muhammad cannot change the Qur’an, reinforcing that the text is a divine revelation from God.

Surah An-Najm (53:3-4)

“Nor does he speak from [his own] inclination. It is not but a revelation revealed.”

These verses underscore that the Prophet’s recitation of the Qur’an is not his own words, but a divine revelation.

Surah Al-Isra (17:88)

“Say, ‘If mankind and the jinn gathered to produce the like of this Qur’an, they could not produce the like of it, even if they were to each other assistants.'”

This verse highlights the inimitable nature of the Qur’an, proving that it is beyond human ability and thus divine.

Surah Ash-Shu’ara (26:193-194)

“It has been brought down by the Trustworthy Spirit (Gabriel) upon your heart, [O Muhammad] – that you may be of the warners.”

This verse explains the mechanism of revelation, with Gabriel bringing the Qur’an to the Prophet’s heart, indicating the divine process behind the text.

Surah Al-Kahf (18:27)

“And recite, [O Muhammad], what has been revealed to you of the Book of your Lord. There is no change in His words, and never will you find a refuge in anything other than Him.”

This verse reiterates the unchangeable nature of God’s words, implying their divine perfection and immutability.

Surah Zukhruf (43:3-4)

“Indeed, We have made it an Arabic Qur’an that you might understand. And indeed, it is, in the Mother of the Book with Us, exalted and full of wisdom.”

The Qur’an is described as being in Arabic but also originating from a divine source, confirming its celestial origin.

Surah Al-Qiyamah (75:17-18)

“Indeed, upon Us is its collection [in your heart] and [to make possible] its recitation. So when We have recited it [through Gabriel], then follow its recitation.”

These verses explain that God is responsible for the collection and recitation of the Qur’an, confirming its status as a divinely revealed text.

Surah Al-Muzzammil (73:5)

“Indeed, We will cast upon you a heavy word.”

This metaphor emphasizes the weightiness and profound significance of the divine message, confirming the Qur’an’s importance as the word of God.

Introduction

Framing the Central Question

If the Quran contains words of various entities and elements of creation, can it still be regarded purely as the Word of God?

The Quran, literally the Word of God, occupies the foremost rank in Islamic thought as an eternal superhuman observer or witness to a man. However, its directives and utterances contain quite a few citations or quotations from different agents, including human agents, such as prophets, believers, unbelievers, animals, natural elements, past communities, angels, and Satan. These words, actions, and discourses are interspersed in the Quran, raising an important theological and metaphysical question: If the Quran is still considered purely the Word of God, then it contains the words and references to these entities.

This question lies at the root of the divine authorship issue. In the event of the Quran incorporating the voices of creation into stories, parables, or dialogues, does it represent an infringement of its status as the exclusive Word of God? Alternatively, do these allusions function as instruments on the part of God through which guidance is accorded to humanity with increased felicity?

This question cannot be addressed except by addressing the aspects of divine speech and revelation. It is through this, among others, that such a representation of entities and elements can also be used to teach and provide moral lessons to readers, whereby they can easily relate to known human experiences and the natural environment. However, the most important question is whether the fact that the words of these entities appear in the Quran challenges its claim of divine inimitability and unity or does it further increase the importance of the Quran as a guide for all creation?

Understanding the Quran’s Nature as a Divine Text

The Quran is an Arabic holy book for Muslims and is considered the word of God.^[1] The appreciation of its sacredness necessarily underpins the understanding of its role in Islamic beliefs and practices. The Quran reinforces this notion of a divine origin.

“Indeed, it is We who sent down the Quran and indeed, we will be its guardian” (Surah Al-Hijr 15:9).

The Quran is not only a source of religion but also has a few other functions for Muslims. The Quran teaches Arabic, which is the central text of Islamic studies and is thought to intercede on behalf of those who honor it.^[2] The fact that it is a text recited at regular rituals while the physical book is treated as a sacred object in both ritual and everyday contexts shows that this is quite central to the spiritual life of a Muslim. The Quran’s role concerning guidance by Allah is as follows:

“This is the Book about which there is no doubt, a guidance for those conscious of Allah” (Surah Al-Baqarah 2:2).

Interestingly, scholars unanimously hold the view that the Quran represents a text that is not easy to read, comprehend, and interpret, even in comparison with other holy texts like the Torah or the Gospel.^[3] Because of this complexity, various interpretative and exegetical traditions have been developed. The Quran realizes this when it concludes that some of its verses are clear, while others are ambiguous.

“It is He who has sent down to you, [O Muhammad], the Book; in it are verses [that are] precise–they are the foundation of the Book–and others unspecific’ (Surah Al-Imran 3:7).

The Quran, because of its religious nature and function as the basis for establishing religious beliefs and practices, is therefore of paramount importance in its need to be interpreted by Muslim scholarship.^[4] An important feature of controlling the shaping of Muslim life is the instruction to reflect on its meaning.

“Then do they not reflect upon the Quran, or are there locks upon [their] hearts?” (Surah Muhammad 47:24).

In short, the divine character of the Quran shaped its reception, use, and interpretation by Muslim communities. Its richness and depth invite elaborate interpretative traditions; that is, the Word of God underlines its position at the center of Islamic faith and practice. In addition, the divine nature of the Quran influences not only individual spiritual experiences but also shapes Muslim personalities and distinguishes Islam from other religious traditions. This attests to its unity and divine origin.^[5]

This is because of what has come from his Lord, and they say,

“Do they not reflect upon the Quran? If it had been from [any] other than Allah, they would have found within it much contradiction” (Surah An-Nisa 4:82).

The objective of the Paper

This paper, therefore, aims to thoroughly research and discuss whether the Quran—while referring to other entities like prophets, angels, animals, elements of nature, and even Satan—is still purely the Word of God. This paper further discusses the theological and linguistic connotations that such references imply: Do these references challenge the divine authorship of the Quran, or do they extend their function as a guide for humanity?

Therefore, using this analysis, this study seeks to

Explain the nature of divine speech and revelation in the Quran to them as if I were trying to answer.

Presentation of the role of narrative and quotations of different agents in communicating moral, ethical, and spiritual lessons.

Provide an argument based on modern linguistic factors and theological insights on whether these references’ negativity affects its status as the exclusive word of God.

Demonstrate how diversified voices in the Quran form part of the greater divine communication strategy to offer guidance in a relatable and comprehensible manner to all creations.

Therefore, this paper answers the question of the divine authorship of the American Constitution, undergirded with a reasoned argument from traditional understanding as well as contemporary scholarship.

Presenting the Core Argument

The Presence of Various Entities and Elements in the Quran

While the Quran is considered the direct Word of God, it contains instances where the words of other entities—such as prophets, humans, angels, animals, and even Satan—are cited. These words, whether spoken directly or reported by God, play a role in delivering guidance, moral lessons, and warnings. These citations raise the theological question of whether the Quran, as the Word of God, remains divine when it includes the speech of creation.

Words of Human Figures and Prophets

The Quran frequently includes direct speech from prophets and other figures. In Surah Al-A’raf (7:23), The words of Adam and Eve are quoted where they repented and asked for forgiveness from their Lord;

They said, “Our Lord! We have wronged ourselves. If You do not forgive us and have mercy on us, we will certainly be losers.

Similarly, the words of Prophet Moses are frequently quoted in the Quran. In Surah Taha (20:25-28), Moses prays to God for assistance in delivering his message:

“[Moses] said, ‘My Lord, expand for me my breast [with assurance]; and ease for me my task; and untie the knot from my tongue; that they may understand my speech.'”

The people of Moses speak in several ways. In Surah Al-Ma’idah (5:24), they expressed their reluctance to enter the land God had promised them:

“They said, ‘O Moses, indeed we will not enter it, ever, as long as they are within it; so go, you and your Lord, and fight. Indeed, we are remaining right here.'”

The Quran also contains the words of Prophet Jesus, such as in Surah Al-Ma’idah (5:114), where God recounts the miracles performed by Jesus with His permission:

Jesus, son of Mary, then prayed: ‘O Allah, our Lord, send down to us a repast from the heavens that shall be a festival for the first of us and the last of us and a sign from You. And provide us with sustenance, for You are the best Provider of sustenance.’

Words of Angels

The speech of angels appears in multiple instances throughout the Quran. One notable example is Surah Al-Baqarah (2:30), where the angels question God’s plan to create humans on Earth:

“They said, ‘Will You place upon it one who causes corruption therein and sheds blood, while we declare Your praise and sanctify You?’ He said, ‘Indeed, I know that which you do not know.'”

In Surah Maryam (19:17-21), the angel Gabriel speaks to Mary, informing her of the miraculous birth of Jesus:

“He said, ‘I am only the messenger of your Lord to give you [news of] a pure boy.’ She said, ‘How can I have a boy while no man has touched me and I have not been unchaste?'”

Words of Satan (Iblees)

Satan’s words are explicitly quoted in several verses, particularly in his challenge to God and humanity. In Surah Al-A’raf (7:16-17), Satan vows to mislead humanity:

“[Satan] said, ‘Because You have put me in error, I will surely sit in wait for them on Your straight path. Then I will come to them from before them and from behind them and on their right and their left, and You will not find most of them grateful [to You].'”

Similarly, in Surah Sad (38:82-83), Satan declares his intent to deceive all but sincere believers:

“[Satan] said, ‘By Your might, I will surely mislead them all except, among them, Your chosen servants.'”

Words of Animals

The Quran even included speech from animals, further expanding the range of voices. In Surah An-Naml (27:18), an ant warns its colony of the approach of Solomon’s army:

“…an ant said, ‘O ants, enter your dwellings that you not be crushed by Solomon and his soldiers while they perceive not.'”

Additionally, the hoopoe bird in Surah An-Naml (27:20-28) delivers important information to Solomon about the Queen of Sheba:

“But the hoopoe stayed not long and said, ‘I have encompassed [in knowledge] that which you have not encompassed, and I have come to you from Sheba with certain news.'”

Words of Communities

The Quran frequently recounts the speeches of various communities, often in response to messages delivered by prophets. For instance, the people of Prophet Noah reject his message in Surah Al-Mu’minun (23:24).

“But the eminent among those who disbelieved from his people said, ‘This is not but a man like yourselves who wishes to take precedence over you…'”

Similarly, in Surah Hud (11:53-54), the people of Prophet Hud expressed their disbelief:

“They said, ‘O Hud, you have not brought us clear evidence, and we are not ones to leave our gods on your say-so, nor are we believers in you….”

Words of Other Entities

In certain instances, inanimate objects or abstract concepts are personified in the Quran. In Surah Fussilat (41:11), the heavens and the earth respond to God’s command:

“Then He directed Himself to heaven while it was smoke and said to it and the earth, ‘Come [into being], willingly or by compulsion.’ They said, ‘We have come willingly.'”

The inclusion of these diverse voices—whether human, prophetic, angelic, satanic, or animal—demonstrates the Quran’s method of communicating divine truths from various perspectives. These words are framed within the broader divine narrative and serve specific purposes such as illustrating moral lessons or offering guidance. However, the presence of these voices raises the central theological question: Do these words of others diminish the Quran’s status as the sole Word of God, or do they enhance its ability to communicate divine wisdom?

Countering the Argument: An Elaborate Response Based on Linguistic and Literary Principles

One may then argue that since the Quran contains the words of different entities, such as prophets, angels, humans, animals, and even Satan, it negates its divine origin. Indeed, through traditional and modern linguistic and literary principles, it would be quite simple to refute such a claim, which is based on the supposition that the presence of these other voices in some way dilutes the Quran’s status as the Word of God. Indeed, examination of the structure, purpose, and rhetorical facilities given to these voices in the Quran shows that their inclusion has the effect of reinforcing rather than diminishing in any way the divine nature of the Quran.

Distinguishing Quotation from Authorship: Narrative Control and Divine Intent

One of the most important features that must be underlined concerns the difference between quotation and authorship. Modern literary theories, in particular knowledge drawn from narratology and authorial control, remind us that the author of a text is still the main actor of meaning when he might be quoting other voices. In this respect, God is the top narrator in the Quran, and every voice, whether prophets, angels, Satan, or created beings, is framed within God’s greater narrative.

The voice of God reverberates throughout the Quran, and it is He who orchestrates the inclusion of these dialogues in His service.

For instance, in Surah Al-Baqarah: when the angels raise the question of wisdom for creating humans, God dictates the whole conversation:

“And when your Lord said to the angels, ‘Indeed, I will make upon the earth a successive authority.’ They said, ‘Will You place upon it one who causes corruption therein and sheds blood, while we declare Your praise and sanctify You?’ He said, ‘Indeed, I know that which you do not know.'” (Quran 2:30)

Here, it is the speech of the angels that plays a divine role—to underscore God’s incomparable wisdom and foresight.

From a literary perspective, God’s voice as the highest level of narrator makes any other voices heard but not to weaken the divine narration. The theory by Mikhail Bakhtin on dialogism presents multiple voices within one text, deepening meaning because the author orchestrates these voices to present greater truths.

In the Quran, this multiple voicing represents a deliberate divine strategy to elaborate on different standpoints to urge the reader toward moral and theological reflection.

Speech Acts: Quoted Speech in Performative Functions

Drawing from speech act theory as developed by J.L. Austin and John Searle,^[6] This may further inform us about how the Quran may incorporate other words into its text without impinging on its status as a divine book. According to speech act theory, language is more than just communication; it is an act. Every instance of speech in the Quran performs some divine function of commanding, warning, guiding, or teaching.

Take, for example, these words of Satan in Surah Al-A’raf:

“[Satan] said, ‘Because You have put me in error, I will surely sit in wait for them on Your straight path. Then I will come to them from before them and from behind them and on their right and their left, and You will not find most of them grateful [to You].'” (Quran 7:16-17)

This is not a mere narration of Satan’s speech; it serves as the performative act of warning believers about Satan’s intention to mislead humanity. God’s inclusion of Satan’s speech here serves only to remind the readers of the eternal fight between good and evil, between divine guidance and satanic temptation. By this, God’s authorship remains intact; the speech of Satan serves to perform an act of divine guidance.

Inimitability: I’jaz and Linguistic Mastery – The Quran’s Supernatural Linguistic Scheme

One of the most critical elements of the divine nature of the Quran is its inimitability or I’jaz al-Quran—no human or any other agent has, does, or will ever be able to produce a text equal to the Quran in its linguistic excellence, rhetoric, or thematic inferiority. It is here that scholars such as Mustansir Mir have examined exactly how such a multi-voiced nature of the Quran helps, instead of weakening, its divinity to underscore the unparalleled rhetorical and linguistic genius of the holy book.^[7]

For instance, the Quran directly challenges humans in Surah Al-Isra’:

“Say, ‘If mankind and the jinn gathered to produce the like of this Qur’an, they could not produce the like of it, even if they were to each assist the other.'” (Quran 17:88)

The interesting thing is that, despite including human, angelic, and even satanic speech, no mismatch occurs in the Quran’s singular linguistic coherence and eloquence. A part of the miraculous nature of the Quran is how such voices of men, angels, and devils are molded into a single text while preserving one uniform standard of literary excellence. No other book can combine such a diversity of contributors with the same quality of rhetorical flair.

Consider how today’s linguistic analysis of the Quran makes us conscious that, besides being devices of dialogue, parallelism and repetition have been used to bring coherence to its strength: for example, the repeated references to human defiance and divine patience across various stories—for example, the people of Noah, the people of Hud—create a thematic structure that reinforces the Quran’s central message of submission to God.

Polyphony and Voices in Layers: Modern Literary Theories Insights

This can be elaborated on with the help of Bakhtin’s formulation of polyphony, which refers to the structure of a text that hosts a multitude of often diverging voices and provides dynamic exchange among these voices without the title of any single perspective being privileged.^[8] It is a concept that offers fertile grounds for delineation regarding a much-argued aspect of the Quran, namely the use of diverse voices—prophets, angels, humans, animals, Satan, and even natural elements—under the generic label of divine authorship.

While the Quran presents a clear claim to the divine word, it simultaneously incorporates myriad voices, which may seem at the outset to negate such an assertion of divine authorship. Through the lens of polyphony, however, these voices fall into no kind of competition with the Quran’s claim of the word of God. They attest to depth and fullness in divine communication through the incorporation of diverse perspectives in the direction and guidance of humanity. Bakhtin’s theory of polyphony shows how the use of multi-vocality in the Quran adds depth to the text while reinforcing its didactic value without ever dispensing with a consistent divine narrative voice.

Polyphony and the Quran’s Use of Multiple Voices

In the Quran, Allah is the major narrator, but there are other voices too—those of prophets, angels, humans, animals, and even Satan. Yet, these voices are not free from the design of the divine will but, rather, set within the divine narrative for certain theological and moral purposes. This aligns with Bakhtin’s idea of dialogic polyphony, or the interaction of several voices orchestrated for one unified goal.^[9]

For instance, the conversation between God and the angels in Surah Al-Baqarah regarding the creation of Adam is a clear example of multiple voices in the divine narrative (2:30-34):

The angels say with apprehension:

“Will You place upon it one who causes corruption therein and sheds blood, while we declare Your praise and sanctify You?” (2:30)

God responds with an awareness of what is better:

“Indeed, I know that which you do not know.” (2:30)

Here, the voices of the angels and God together share one story, but from different directions, each sheds new meaning on the creation of humanity. The fears of the angels represent one camp, for which the basis of the argument is reason and observation. Still, God’s voice is paramount in authority and knowledge, dissolving tension between divine understanding and the limited wisdom of the creatures. The interaction seems to embody a Bakhtinian understanding of dialogic interaction, where several voices engage but never conflict with the general divine narrative of the speaking parties.^[10]

Dialogism in the Quran’s Use of Historical Narratives

Voices of ancient nations, prophets, and disbelievers burst forth into the text: it is a dialogical narrative inviting reflection. These voices purvey conflicting views concerning faith, morality, and divine justice; yet they serve to reinforce the Quran’s central message of submission to God.

For example, in Surah Al-A’raf (7:11-17), the rebellion of Satan upon being ordered to prostrate before Adam is presented as a direct dialogue between Satan and God:

Satan refuses to bow:

“What prevented you from prostrating when I commanded you?” (7:12)

Satan answers, justifying his refusal:

“I am better than him.” (7:12)

In this case, the defiant voice of Satan is juxtaposed against the voice of God, creating a polyphonic tension between obedience and rebellion. Satan’s voice of pride and defiance is ultimately subordinated by the omnipotence and justice of God. Bakhtin’s polyphony allows for this dialogue to occur within the same text while still maintaining the central authority of the divine narrative.^[11]

Polyphony and the Human Condition

The Quran often addresses the human condition in that voices of struggle, doubt, and aspiration can be heard within it—creating a dialogic space that invites readers to relate personally to the narratives. Yet, these voices never undermine the divine voice, which remains at the heart of the Quran’s message.^[12]

In Surah Maryam (19:16-21), we see how the angel Gabriel communicates with Mary:

The angel informs Mary of her miraculous pregnancy, and a concerned Mary asks:

“How can I have a boy while no man has touched me?” (19:20)

It is here that Mary’s human voice expresses a serious concern about the miraculous nature of the message. The angel reassures her with divine authority, emphasizing God’s omnipotent power:

“Thus it will be; your Lord says, ‘It is easy for Me.'” (19:21)

This interaction serves as an emotional resonance within the story, carrying human feelings of perplexity and faith, along with divine reassurance. This reflects Bakhtin’s idea of dialogism, where human voices and divine voices coexist to enrich the narrative and invite deeper reflection.^[13]

Polyphony Beyond Literature: Applying the Concept to the Quran

In the same vein, Bakhtin’s polyphony has been extended beyond literature to areas like political discourse analysis^[14] and brand management. This extension makes polyphony a relevant concept in analyzing Quranic discourse. Polyphony in the Quran allows multiple voices—from believers, disbelievers, angels, and even Satan himself—to be heard, not to dilute the message, but to articulate its complexity and multi-dimensionality.^[15]

For instance, the voices of past nations—such as the people of Noah, Aad, and Thamud—find their places within the Quranic narrative to provide historical and moral context. These voices serve as lessons for the present, warning against disobedience and illustrating the consequences of rejecting divine guidance. The polyphony here enables the reader to engage with various historical experiences, all framed within the central narrative of God’s message.

Quranic Unity in Polyphony

In contrast to modern polyphonic texts, which often leave voices unresolved or in mutual conflict, the Quran brings polyphony into a unified whole.^[16] Whether from prophets, angels, humans, or even natural elements, the many voices of the Quran are subordinated to the divine voice. Each voice elaborates on a larger theological message without challenging the unity of God’s authorship.

For example, in Surah Al-Rahman (55), where the whole description of creation, judgment, and mercy is anchored by the repeated refrain:

“Which of the favors of your Lord will you deny?” (55:13)

Every “voice” in this surah—whether describing the heavens, the earth, or human beings—is part of the dialogic exchange that emphasizes the overriding message of gratitude toward God. Quranic polyphony acts as one of how readers are engaged with different voices, all contributing to the unity of the divine message.^[17]

Hermeneutical Approaches and the Dynamic Character of the Quran

It is against this that Fazlur Rahman’s hermeneutical approach insists on the dynamic quality of the Quran, whose historical contexts and concrete events serve to carry universal truths across: the speech of various human and non-human participants integrated, not to relativize its authority, but to locate its message within those aspects of human experience that are more convincingly real to the audience.^[18]

In Surah Hud, for example, the people of Hud reject the message of their prophet:

“They said, ‘O Hud, you have not brought us clear evidence, and we are not ones to leave our gods on your word, nor are we believers in you.'” (Quran 11:53)

This dialogue represents the historical recalcitrance of Hud’s people, but its principle—human defiance of divine truth—remains constant through time. Rahman’s double movement theory displays exactly how the Quran shifts from particular historical events to general universal lessons. The historical speech of nations is therefore an integral part of the Quran’s pedagogical approach, which always reiterates and reconfirms its guidance on behalf of Divinity within various situations.

Thematic Unity and Rhetorical Structure: Coherence Across Voices

Despite the many voices, the Quran presents one thematic unity throughout the entire book. Whatever the angels, the prophets, or even Satan say in the speech, it drives home central themes in the Quran: submission to God, divine justice, and human accountability. This is indicative of divine authorship whereby the voices may be many, yet the message through them is one.

The Glorious Qur’an has challenged the reader to contemplate its coherence in Surah Al-Nisa:

“Do they not reflect upon the Qur’an? If it had been from [any] other than Allah, they would have found within it much contradiction.” (Quran 4:82)

Furthermore, thematic unity is achieved in the Quran through the repetition of motifs, rhetorical devices, and the placement of all voices within God’s framing. This consistency provides further support for Bakhtin’s contention that multiple voices in the Quran serve, if anything, to reinforce rather than weaken its divine authorship.

Argument from Modern Linguistic Principles

Semantic Fields of Arabic Roots in the Quran

Most of the miraculous natures of the words chosen in the Quran are hailed for their precision, depth, and eloquence. Every word within the Quran is carefully selected to carry with itself an intended meaning, added with layers of interpretation and reflection.

The choice of words in the Quranic language is an incomparable feature, which scholars of all times have regarded as a characteristic of the miraculous origin of the Quran. Its precision and elegance with which the Quran uses the words are an insight into its rhetoric and communicative excellence.

Exactitude in Meaning

Precision is one of the central features of Quranic word choice.

One of the richest aspects of the Arabic language is its abundance of synonyms for a single term. The Quran selects between these synonyms with acute precision, often choosing words that perfectly suit the context while suggesting subtle shades of meaning. A case in point is the terminology for “rain.” In the Quran, three words are primarily used: “ghayth” (غیث), “matar” (مطر), and “wadq” (ودق).

Each of these words has a particular usage in varied contexts carrying shades of different meanings:

Ghayth is used to refer to beneficial rain, bringing life and relief, and is often used in positive contexts such as in Surah Al-Shura, 42:28.

Matar, however, is used in the sense of destructive rain or punishment, for instance, in Surah Al-A’raf, 7:84, and carries a negative connotation.

Wadq is a light, soft rain of fine drops. This is indicative of their consideration and different usages even when it comes to the items that are not very significant, such as rain.

It reflects an accuracy that this choice of words cannot go unnoticed. Each of these terms is used specifically: it reflects the fact that the Quran is capable not only of providing an accurate description of the event but also of provoking emotional responses and associations.

Contextual Word Choice

Apart from its precision, Quranic word choices often contextually relate to other verses and themes surrounding the selected term. An example is the word “Kayda” (کید) in Surah Yusuf, 12:28, when the wife of Potiphar accused Prophet Yusuf (Joseph) of misdeed. In this context, the word carries connotations of betrayal and moral failure, perfectly aligning with the false accusation made against Yusuf.

Another good example is the use of the word “fitnah” in the Quran, which, according to the context, can mean anything from trial or temptation to persecution. Thus, in Surah Al-Baqarah, 2:217, fitnah refers to persecutions and trials faced by early Muslims, while in other contexts, it may mean spiritual temptation. The flexibility and precision with which words are used expose the depth of the Quranic language.

Synonyms and Subtle Differences

Another striking feature of the Quran is its use of synonyms that convey subtle differences in meaning. For instance, the words used for the heart are “qalb” (قلب), “fu’ad” (فؤاد), and “sadr” (صدر).

• Qalb serves as a general term denoting the heart as the center of emotion and intellect.
• Fu’ad carries the sense of the heart with a strong emotional meaning, almost as if it was used at a time when one was either stressed or excited. For example, Surah Al-Qasas, 28:10.
• Sadr is the chest, which indicates openness or constriction in terms of psychological states. An example is in Surah Ash-Sharh, 94:1, where God speaks about expanding the Prophet’s chest to mean giving him relief and ease.

In this text, each word is chosen on purpose, even with synonyms being used with subtlety. The meaning is layered by the deliberate choice of each term.

Economy of Language

Another dimension of the Quran’s word choice is that it is economical in expression.

The Quran often conveys intricate meanings with few words; in fact, it is considered elegant and efficient. These characteristics of brevity and depth manifest in verses like Surah Al-Asr, 103:1-3, where a total of just three verses are used to convey deep lessons on the concept of time, human loss, and deliverance through faith and good deeds. It is often pointed out by scholars as a characteristic unique to the Quran when compared to other modes of speech. The profundity and directness go together.

Aesthetic and Phonetic Beauty

The aesthetic quality of the Quran’s word choices is often cited as a key aspect of its miraculous nature. The Quran employs rhymed prose (saj’ سج), enhancing the pleasantness of its recitation. The words are both informative and melodious, captivating listeners with their rhythm and sound. This is especially true in shorter surahs, such as Surah Al-Ikhlas (112) and Surah Al-Falaq (113), where each brief verse resonates with rhythmic harmony and profound meaning.

Word Order in the Quran

Word order in the Quran forms one of the pivotal attributes of its linguistic miracle, reflecting its eloquence and precision, with rhetorical strengths thereto. Arabic is one of those languages in which word order plays a decisive role in emphasizing certain elements within a sentence and thereby changes either the meaning or at least the focus of the text. Indeed, the Quran—through its deliberate word order—occasions deep meanings, directs attention, and allows the performance of rhythm and harmony to flow.

This paper represents an academic treatment of how the Quran uses word order in such a sophisticated manner to explore and make sense of how such a construction contributes to both the rhetorical and theological objectives of the text.

Freedom of Word Order in Arabic

Arabic is one of the languages that offer flexible sentence structure. The unmarked word order in Arabic is VSO; it can, however, easily shift to SVO, depending on the emphasis. This flexibility enables Quranic adjustments in word order to emphasize certain elements of a sentence, thus providing a more profound meaning and a captivating message.

For example, Allah says in Surah Al-Imran, 3:54:

“And they planned, and Allah also planned, and Allah is the best of planners.”

In this verse, the mention of the word “Allah” is placed after the verb “planned” for emphasis—the plan of God, which is superior to others’ schemes. The wording emphasizes the divine response that Allah acts and is omnipotent, having full control over the events.

Emphasis through Word Order

In the Quran, word order is often employed to emphasize specific concepts or elements within a verse. To achieve this, the typical order of words is sometimes altered—a stylistic feature known as “taqdim wa takhir” (تقدیم و تاخیر) or advancement and delay. By rearranging certain terms in this way, the Quran draws attention to key messages, shifting focus through unconventional word placement.

In Surah Al-Fatiha, 1:5؛

“It is You we worship, and it is You we ask for help.”

We would normally expect the verb “we worship” to precede “You,” but the Quran places “You” first to emphasize that this act of worship is solely intended for Allah. This word order change carries within it, at its very core, the concept of monotheism, or the belief in the oneness of God, which stands at the heart of Islamic thought.

Word Order and Rhythmic Flow

The other important aspect of word order in the Quran concerns the rhythmic flow that it gives to the text. The placing of the words determines the melodic recitation of the Quran, commonly known as tajweed. In this instance, the word orders have been so arranged as to strike a balance between meaning and rhythm to optimize the auditory effect.

In Surah Al-Ikhlas, 112:1-4, word order provides the basis for an easy and melodious recitation:

“Say, ‘He is Allah, [who is] One, Allah, the Eternal Refuge.'”

The simple word order contributes more to the rhythmical harmony, delivering one of the most powerful theological messages about the oneness of God. Its perfect balance between meaning and sound is the hallmark of this linguistic masterpiece of the Quran.

Word Order and Perspective Shifts

The Quran often resorts to word order as a device to shift perspective or focus within one verse. Word order is an effective way to bring across shifts in tone or orientation of address. The Quran may speak of the believers and then address the disbelievers directly; this contrast emphasizes the message.

The word order changes in Surah Al-Baqarah, 2:21-22, while addressing the same theme but to different groups:

“O mankind, worship your Lord, who created you and those before you, that you may become righteous.”

First, the verse addresses all of mankind, then it continues with a reference to past generations. The word order here provokes reflection upon history and the lessons learned from past peoples. This shift in focus presents a universal message that constitutes a call for communal reflection.

Thematic Unity through Word Order

The word order in the Quran often follows its thematic unity, such that sentence structure reflects the larger message of a chapter or surah. Indeed, the Quran often begins with general statements on creation or divine attributes; specific commands and stories usually follow to continue the theme without any disjointedness.

In Surah Al-Baqarah, 2:255, within Ayat al-Kursi, the verse begins by declaring the sovereignty of Allah:

“Allah! There is no deity except Him, the Ever-Living, the Sustainer of existence.”

Here, the use of “Allah” at the beginning emphasizes that He is the most important in the universe. As the verse proceeds, the word arrangement serves to confirm the development of the theme of divine authority and omnipotence. This is a conscious structure of words that underlines the theological message and facilitates memory.

Word Order and Rhetorical Questions

The Quran uses rhetorical questions quite often as a means of provoking reflection. One of the most critical devices that creates such a reaction is the word order in these questions. Bringing words to the front in a question heightens the rhetorical effect—it makes one linger over the question and reflect deeply.

In Surah Al-Mulk, 67:19, the Quran asks:

“Do they not look at the birds above them, spreading and folding their wings? None upholds them except the Most Merciful. Indeed, He is, of all things, Seeing.”

The question starts with “look,” drawing attention at once to observation. This places the verb “look” at the forefront to emphasize the call to reflect upon creation and to call the listener’s attention to Allah’s power and mercy.

Grammatical Movements in the Holy Quran: An Academic Analysis

The Quran is famous for its extreme use of what, in Arabic, is called grammatical shifts, or iltifāt. These shifts have been considered an integral and essential part of the linguistic and rhetorical miracle of the Quran. Iltifāt refers to sudden changes, in person, tense, or number, within a text, seemingly uncustomary to first-time readers, serving crucial rhetorical and theological purposes. These grammatical shifts are not errors or inconsistencies but part of the peculiar flow, dynamism, and depth of the Quranic text in Arabic. It is through such shifts that the Quran does its work of engaging the listener or reader, eliciting emotional responses, drawing attention to a key point, or reflecting the multidimensionality of the message.

Grammatical Transitions (Iltifāt) – Explanations

Iltifāt is derived from the Arabic root that means “to turn” or “to shift.” In Quranic exegesis, it refers to an intentional grammatical shift within a verse or passage. These shifts take place in:

• Person: for instance, from first to third and vice versa
• Tense: e.g., from past to present or future tense
• Number: such as changes from singular to plural, or vice versa.

Indeed, such shifts were considered one of the hallmarks of eloquence in classical Arabic rhetoric. They lend a certain dynamism to the discourse and engage the audience in a way not possible in conventional structures of narration. The Quran deploys iltifāt for emphasis on key theological concepts, deepened reflection, and heightened affective-intellectual involvement of listeners.

Forms of Grammatical Transpositions in the Quran

Changes of Person

One of the most common varieties of iltifāt throughout the Quran is a switch in grammatical person. Indeed, the Quran very often shifts from the third person to first (I/We), or second (You) within the same verse or passage. An example would be those places where Allah is mentioned as speaking or being spoken of. These transitions highlight divine authority, human responsibility, or both.

For example, in Surah Al-Fatiha, 1:3-5, there is a switch from third to second person:

“(He is) The Most Merciful, the Most Compassionate, Master of the Day of Judgment. It is You we worship and You we ask for help.”

First, Allah is described in the third person, but in the middle of the passage, the verse switches directly to address Him in the second person. This grammatical shift from “He” to “You” develops intimacy and immediacy in worship. By turning and addressing Allah directly after describing His attributes, the verse transitions from a description of God’s qualities to a personal plea for guidance and help.

Changes of Tense

Another important variety of iltifāt is the kind that expresses changes in tense. In many instances, the Quran changes from past to present or future tense within the same passage to emphasize the timeless nature of the divine message. Such transitions between tenses serve to blend the past, the present, and the future in an exposition on the certainty of both divine promises and events.

The shift from past to present tense is expressed in Surah Al-Nahl, 16:28:

“Those whose souls the angels take while they are wronging themselves, then they will offer submission, [saying], ‘We were not doing any evil.’ But yes, indeed, Allah knows what you used to do.”

Here, the verse is in the past tense, speaking of an event of death, but then it shifts into the present tense to paint a picture of divine awareness and judgment as continuing. This change of tense makes clear that while the event of one’s death is fixed in the past, accountability and awareness of one’s actions are continuing and eternal.

Quantity Changes

Another grammatical device in the Quran is a shift in number—from singular to plural or vice versa. This shift often extends individual responsibility to collective accountability, or it may emphasize the unity and plurality of Allah’s attributes.

One example is in Surah Al-Mulk, 67:23, where there is an example of transition from the singular to the plural:

“Say, ‘It is He who has produced you and made for you hearing, vision, and hearts; little are you grateful.'”

This verse first refers to Allah as singular, using “He”; however, when it says “you,” it shifts to plural. What this implies is that the general address is to the entirety of humanity, who, having been bestowed with hearing, vision, and intellect, owe a debt of gratitude to the end.

Grammatical Shifts: Rhetorical and Theological Functions

Strong Emphasis and Involvement

These changes in person, tense, and number are not arbitrary but draw attention to specific theological or moral points. A frequent function of the Quran’s shift in person from third to second is the addressing of the listener or reader directly. The use of “You” as opposed to “He,” the more remote of the two personal pronouns, draws the recipient into a direct and personal relationship. It calls for reflection and response from those who are listening or reading.

In Surah Al-Baqarah, 2:21, Allah says:

“O mankind, worship your Lord, who created you and those before you, that you may become righteous.”

Here, the shift in address—from the more remote “Lord” to the direct command to worship—emphasizes human responsibility before the Creator. It places a burden on a call for action in which the listener is compelled to respond to the divine command.

Reflection of Divine Majesty

Another important purpose for grammatical shifts is to bring out the aspect of Allah’s majesty and power. Often, the Quran shifts from third-person references to Allah—which might evoke awe—to first-person plural pronouns such as “We” to press the aspect of Allah’s sovereignty and power.

For example, in Surah Al-Dhariyat, 51:47, Allah says:

“And We built the heaven with might, and indeed We are [its] expander.”

In this verse, the royal plural “We” emphasizes Allah’s greatness and authority in creation. The sudden shift from singular to plural increases the greatness of divine power and is a reminder of Allah’s omnipotence.

Mixing Time: Certainty of Future Events

The Quran shifts between past, present, and future tenses to impress the certainty of events still in the future as if they have already taken place. This becomes evident from various verses about the Day of Judgment, where the events planned for that Day are depicted with the very same absolute certainty as past events.

For example, in Surah Al-Waqi’ah, 56:1, the verse opens with a past tense verb to describe an action that will happen in the future:

“When the Occurrence occurs.”

Although it is still to happen, the Day of Judgment is spoken of in the past tense; this strengthens the fact that it will indeed take place just as Allah promised.

Ring Composition in the Quran: A More Detailed and Expanded Discussion

While one of the most sophisticated and intricately developed forms employed in the Quran is the chiasmic structure, ring composition in the Quran denotes a structure where the ideas or themes are disposed symmetrically, in a mirror framework, around a central concept or theme. It is in such a manner that this approach underlines key ideas, secures coherence, and maintains thematic unity in the Quran to reinforce major theological and moral messages.

Definition and Overview

In form, the structure is concentric: A-B-C-B’-A’, where the outer elements, A and A’, as well as the next inside elements, B and B’, are parallel while the inner theme, C, serve as the point. This is the way to make an important point or idea central to ideas that are built up to reinforce that central idea.

The Beauty and Coherence of Literature

The ring composition performs several critical functions in the Quran, including:

• Central Theme Emphasis: By placing the core message in the center, the structure draws the attention of its readers or listeners to the most important idea within a passage or surah.
• Symmetry and Thematic Unity: It ensures that various parts of the text maintain coherence with the overall message.
• Aesthetic Appeal: Ring composition enhances balance and symmetry, making the Quran not just a spiritual guide but also a work of literature.

More Extended Examples of Ring Composition in the Quran

A. Surah Al-Baqarah (2)

One of the deepest instances of ring composition in the Quran is in Surah Al-Baqarah. The structure of the surah is symmetric, with a middle that focuses on the change of qiblah—the direction of prayer that signifies one of the most crucial moments in Islamic history—and the whole chapter is directed toward themes of guidance, obedience, and faith.

• A: Introductory (verses 1-20): Faith, disbelief, and hypocrisy.
• B: The Covenant with the Children of Israel (verses 21-141): Develops the role of humanity and divine guidance.
• C: Central theme: Change of the qiblah (verses 142-152). Establishes a new direction of prayer, marking the identity of the Muslim community.
• B’: Abraham and the establishment of the Kaaba (verses 153-253): Emphasizes the covenant with Abraham.
• A’: Conclusion (verses 254-286): Faith and the afterlife, mirroring the introduction.

The change of qibla at the center of the ring is itself a pivotal point in the history of the Muslim community, while the theme of belief and submission circles around this axis of change, forming a logical symmetric structure.

B. Surah Al-Kahf (18)

Surah Al-Kahf contains several stories of trials and tribulations, following a ring structure. The inner story of Moses and Khidr forms the center of the surah, while the outer stories reflect divine guidance and protection.

• A: The Story of the People of the Cave (verses 9-26): Emphasizes God’s protection during trials of faith.
• B: The parable of the man with two gardens (verses 32-44): Reflects the test of wealth and arrogance.
• C: Central story: Moses and Khidr (verses 60-82): Focuses on seeking knowledge and trusting in divine wisdom.
• B’: The story of Dhul-Qarnayn (verses 83-98): Illustrates the test of power and justice.
• A’: Conclusion (verses 99-110): Faith and divine guidance, mirroring the opening story.

The center of the ring emphasizes the story of Moses and Khidr, where patience and understanding are key to accepting divine wisdom. The outer stories mirror the theme of faith and reliance upon God’s guidance.

C. Surah Yusuf (12)

Another significant example of ring composition is Surah Yusuf, which tells the story of Prophet Joseph. The structure is symmetrical, revolving around the key life events of Yusuf.

• A: Yusuf’s dream (verse 4): Introduces prophecy.
• B: Yusuf is betrayed by his brothers and thrown into the well (verses 7-17).
• C: Yusuf is sold into slavery and taken to Egypt (verses 18-20).
• D: The temptation of Yusuf by Al-Aziz’s wife (verses 21-34).
• E: Yusuf’s imprisonment (verses 35-42).
• F: Central theme: Yusuf interprets the king’s dreams and rises to power.
• E’: Yusuf’s release from prison (verses 54-57).
• D’: Reunion with his family and his brothers’ repentance (verses 58-99).
• C’: Yusuf forgives his brothers (verses 100-101).
• B’: The fulfillment of Yusuf’s vision (verse 100).
• A’: Conclusion: Yusuf interprets dreams and is vindicated (verses 102-111).

The turning point in the story is Yusuf’s rise to power, following the interpretation of the king’s dream, leading to reconciliation with his family. This marks the fulfillment of Yusuf’s initial vision, creating a symmetric narrative arc.

D. Surah Maryam (19)

Surah Maryam uses ring composition to recount the stories of prophets and divine intervention. At the center of the surah is the miraculous birth of Jesus, with surrounding stories reflecting themes of divine favor and miraculous events.

• A: The birth of John the Baptist (verses 1-15).
• B: The birth narrative of Jesus (verses 16-40).
• C: Central theme: Affirmation of the truth of prophets (verses 41-50).
• B’: The story of Moses and the rejection of his people (verses 51-58).
• A’: Conclusion: The naming of prophets and divine guidance (verses 59-98).

The birth of Jesus stands at the center, emphasizing the miraculous nature of divine intervention, while the outer stories mirror the trials and tribulations faced by other prophets.

E. Surah Al-Maidah (5)

Surah Al-Maidah displays a sophisticated ring composition, with the central theme being the covenant between Allah and His creation:

• A: Introduction (verses 1-10): Discusses covenants and obligations.
• B: The story of Adam’s two sons (verses 27-31).
• C: Central theme: Laws concerning the People of the Book (verses 44-50).
• B’: The story of Jesus (verses 110-120).
• A’: Conclusion: Faith and responsibility (verses 120-121).

The central theme in Surah Al-Maidah is the laws regarding the People of the Book, framed by stories stressing obedience to divine law and the consequences of disobedience.

Modern scholars like Raymond Farrin have contributed extensively to the study of ring composition in the Quran. Farrin demonstrates that it is an intrinsic part of the Quran’s structure, not merely a stylistic feature.^[19]

Further, Mary Douglas has emphasized the centrality of ring composition: “The meaning is in the middle,” she writes, pointing out that often the central theme contains the key to understanding the whole passage.^[20]

If Iqbal Reads Ghalib’s Poetry, Whose Poetry Is It?

Shared Language and Common Words

Argument:

• Language as a Shared Medium: Both Ghalib and Iqbal use the same language and share a common vocabulary.
• Unique Expression Through Word Choice: While words are shared, combining them conveys unique meanings.

Explanation:

Words are tools that poets use to express ideas. Although Ghalib and Iqbal might use identical words, their arrangement and context differ, leading to distinct expressions. When Iqbal reads Ghalib’s Shayari, he interprets these words through his own experiences, altering the original meaning.

Example:

• Word “Saaqi” (Cupbearer): For Ghalib, “saaqi” might symbolize a beloved who offers wine, representing love or escape. Iqbal might interpret “saaqi” as a metaphor for divine guidance or inspiration.
• Outcome: The same word leads to different interpretations, making Iqbal’s understanding distinct from Ghalib’s intent.

Incorporation of Shayari into Personal Expression

Argument:

• Mixing Shayari into Personal Speech: When Iqbal integrates Ghalib’s lines into his speech (“baat”), the overall message becomes a new creation.
• Transformation of Original Work: The original Shayari is altered by the new context and additional content provided by Iqbal.

Explanation:

By embedding Ghalib’s verses within his speech, Iqbal creates a composite work that cannot be attributed solely to Ghalib. The original shayari becomes part of a larger narrative shaped by Iqbal’s ideas.

Example:

• Iqbal’s Speech: “As Ghalib said, ‘Ishq par zor nahin hai ye woh aatish Ghalib,’ and in our struggle, this unstoppable passion fuels our quest for freedom.”
• Outcome: The speech combines Ghalib’s Shayari with Iqbal’s message, resulting in a new work that reflects both poets.

Mathematical Representation of Transformation

Argument:

• Interpretation as a Function: Reading and interpreting can be modeled mathematically to show transformation.
• Function Application: The original Shayari is input into an interpretive function, resulting in a new output.

Formula:

New Work=Interpretive Function (Iqbal)(Original Shayari (Ghalib))

Explanation:

• Original Shayari (Ghalib): The initial poetic work.
• Interpretive Function (Iqbal): Iqbal’s unique perspective, experiences, and creative additions.
• New York: The transformed piece that includes Iqbal’s interpretations and contributions.

Example:

• Mathematical Representation:

New Shayari=I(G)

• I represent Iqbal’s interpretive function, and G represents Ghalib’s original Shayari.
• Outcome: The new Shayari is a result of applying Iqbal’s interpretation to Ghalib’s work, producing something that is not purely Ghalib’s.

Divergent Philosophical Perspectives

Argument:

• Different Worldviews: Ghalib and Iqbal have distinct philosophical beliefs and life experiences.
• Impact on Interpretation: These differences lead to varied understandings and new meanings.

Explanation:

Iqbal’s philosophical outlook influences how he interprets Ghalib’s poetry. He may emphasize aspects that align with his own beliefs, thereby transforming the original message.

Example:

• Existential vs. Spiritual Themes: Ghalib might explore existential despair, while Iqbal focuses on spiritual awakening.
• Outcome: Iqbal’s interpretation highlights themes that are significant to him, altering the shayari’s meaning.

Reader-Response Theory

Argument:

• Active Participation in Meaning-Making: According to reader-response theory, readers actively construct meaning based on their contexts.
• Subjective Interpretations: Each reader’s background shapes their understanding of a text.

Explanation:

Iqbal’s personal experiences, emotions, and cultural context influence his reading of Ghalib’s Shayari, resulting in a unique interpretation that blends both poets’ influences.

Example:

• Emotional Connection: If Iqbal feels a strong sense of nationalism, he might interpret Ghalib’s references to struggle as calls for independence.
• Outcome: The shayari takes on new significance through Iqbal’s perspective.

Intertextuality and Creation of New Texts

Argument:

• Literary Dialogue: Texts often reference or build upon each other, creating intertextual relationships.
• New Works from Existing Texts: Iqbal’s incorporation of Ghalib’s shayari into his poetry generates original works.

Explanation:

By weaving Ghalib’s lines into his compositions, Iqbal not only pays homage but also creates something novel that reflects his voice.

Example:

• Iqbal’s Poem: Incorporates Ghalib’s line but expands upon it with his verses, addressing contemporary issues.
• Outcome: The new poem is an original creation, utilized by but distinct from Ghalib’s work.

Linguistic Relativity and Semantic Shift

Argument:

• Evolution of Language: Over time, the meanings of words can change due to cultural and societal shifts.
• Different Interpretations: Iqbal may understand certain words differently from Ghalib, leading to new meanings.

Explanation:

Changes in language and context mean that Iqbal’s interpretation of Ghalib’s Shayari might differ significantly from the original intent.

Example:

• Word “Shab” (Night): For Ghalib, it may symbolize despair; for Iqbal, it could represent the darkness before dawn, implying hope.
• Outcome: The semantic shift alters Shayari’s impact.

Psychological Projection

Argument:

• Attributing Personal Feelings: Readers often project their own emotions onto the text.
• Personalized Meaning: Iqbal’s state of mind affects how he interprets Ghalib’s poetry.

Explanation:

Iqbal might infuse Shayari with his feelings, such as optimism or determination, which may not align with Ghalib’s original mood.

Example:

• From Melancholy to Motivation: Ghalib’s lamentations become, in Iqbal’s reading, a catalyst for action.
• Outcome: The poetry inspires a different emotional response.

Performance and Delivery

Argument:

• Influence of Recitation: The way poetry is performed can significantly alter its perception.
• Personal Touch: Iqbal’s delivery adds layers of meaning to Ghalib’s Shayari.

Explanation:

Through tone, emphasis, and pacing, Iqbal can highlight certain aspects of the Shayari, guiding the audience’s interpretation.

Example:

• Emphasizing Hope: Iqbal stresses optimistic lines, downplaying the melancholy.
• Outcome: The performance reshapes the audience’s experience of the shayari.

Legal Perspective on Derivative Works

Argument:

• Recognition of New Creations: Intellectual property law acknowledges derivative works as original creations that are based on existing material.
• Transformation Through Addition: Iqbal’s integration and modification of Ghalib’s shayari result in a new work.

Explanation:

By adding his content and context, Iqbal transforms the original shayari into something that is legally and creatively distinct.

Example:

• Adaptation: Iqbal uses Ghalib’s theme but writes new verses that reflect his ideas.
• Outcome: The resulting work is considered an original piece.

Hermeneutics and the Fusion of Horizons

Argument:

• Merging Perspectives: Hermeneutics suggests that understanding occurs when the reader’s and author’s horizons merge.
• Creation of New Meaning: This fusion leads to interpretations that are unique to the reader.

Explanation:

Iqbal’s cultural background, experiences, and beliefs combine with Ghalib’s text to produce a new meaning that neither could create alone.

Example:

• Cultural Relevance: Iqbal reads Ghalib’s Shayari in the context of contemporary societal changes.
• Outcome: The shayari gains new dimensions relevant to Iqbal’s time.

Cognitive Linguistics and Conceptual Metaphors

Argument:

• Understanding Through Metaphors: People use familiar concepts to understand abstract ideas.
• Different Conceptual Mappings: Iqbal might map Ghalib’s metaphors onto different conceptual frameworks.

Explanation:

Iqbal’s unique associations lead him to interpret metaphors in ways that differ from Ghalib’s original intent.

Example:

• “River” as Metaphor: Ghalib might use it to represent the flow of time; Iqbal could see it as a symbol of constant change and progress.
• Outcome: The metaphor conveys different messages to each poet.

Sociocultural Influences

Argument:

• Context Shapes Interpretation: A reader’s social and cultural environment affects their understanding of a text.
• Adapting to Contemporary Issues: Iqbal might interpret Ghalib’s themes in light of current events.

Explanation:

Cultural shifts can lead to new interpretations that resonate with contemporary audiences, making the Shayari relevant in new ways.

Example:

• Nationalism: Iqbal interprets Ghalib’s expressions of personal struggle as metaphors for the collective struggle for independence.
• Outcome: The shayari gains political significance.

Keeping in view the points mentioned above, it can easily be comprehended that Ghalib’s shayari cannot remain purely his own after Iqbal read, interpreted, and accommodated its elements into his work. Though the dimension of reading, interpreting, and incorporation introduces new dimensions into the work, which alters its original form and meaning, that is not superficial since Iqbal’s influence has thoroughly integrated the transformed work to make it the product of both poets’ contributions.

In conclusion, such support to the argument stands powerful that once read and integrated, the Shayari is already a new creation. In other words, the attributes of a work of literature are never permanent or stable but keep on flowing through different minds and contexts. Thus, the changed Shayari also would relate to the space shared between Ghalib’s originals and Iqbal’s interpretation, a different piece from that which could be exclusively attributed to Ghalib.

Why These Arguments Don’t Apply to the Quran?

Divine Authorship vs. Human Authorship

Argument:

Quran as Divine Revelation: The Quran is considered by Muslims to be the literal word of God (Allah), revealed to the Prophet Muhammad through the Angel Gabriel.

Immutable Text: As a divine text, the Quran is believed to be perfect, unalterable, and preserved in its original form.

Human Works Are Transformable: In contrast, poetry like Ghalib’s Shayari is a human creation, open to reinterpretation and transformation by other humans.

Explanation:

The arguments applied to Ghalib’s shayari focus on the transformation that occurs when another poet, like Iqbal, reads and incorporates it into his work. This is possible because both are human authors operating within the same literary tradition. However, the Quran, being of divine origin, is not subject to alteration through human interpretation in the same way. Its authorship is singular and divine, setting it apart from human literary works.

Example:

Ghalib’s Shayari: Can be adapted, reinterpreted, or incorporated into new works by other poets.

Quran: Remains the same regardless of who reads it; no human can claim authorship or alter its content.

Preservation and Protection of the Text

Argument:

• Quranic Preservation: Muslims believe that the Quran has been preserved exactly as it was revealed, both orally and in written form, through meticulous memorization and transcription.
• Inalterability: The Quran is protected by divine promise from corruption or alteration (Quran 15:9).
• Translations Are Not the Original Quran: Muslims do not consider translations of the Quran as the original word of God but as interpretations of its meanings.
• Human Tafseer Is Not the Quran: Exegeses (tafsir) are scholarly works that explain the Quran but are not considered part of the Quran itself.

Explanation:

The Quran’s preservation is a fundamental aspect of Islamic belief. Translations and tafsirs are valuable for understanding but are not equated with the Quran’s original Arabic text. This underscores the distinction between the divine text and human efforts to interpret it. In contrast, human literary works lack such a strict separation between the original and interpretations or adaptations.

Example:

• Translations as Interpretations: A translation of the Quran is called “The Interpretation of the Meanings of the Noble Quran” to indicate it is not the original text.
• Tafseer: Scholars provide explanations but do not alter or add to the Quranic text.

The Role of Interpretation (Tafseer) vs. Personal Rewriting

Argument:

• Structured Interpretation (Tafseer): Tafseer is conducted by qualified scholars who adhere to strict methodologies to explain the Quran’s meanings without altering the text.
• Personal Interpretation Has Limits: Individual reflections are encouraged but must not contradict established interpretations or alter the Quran’s meanings.
• No Alteration Allowed: Adding to or subtracting from the Quranic text is prohibited.
• Poetry Encourages Rewriting: Literary works can be freely adapted or reimagined by others, leading to new creations.

Explanation:

While the Quran invites reflection, any interpretation must respect the sacredness and fixed nature of the text. Personal or creative rewriting of the Quran is not permissible, unlike with poetry, where such transformations are part of the literary tradition.

Example:

• Tafseer Scholars: They explain verses based on hadith, linguistic analysis, and historical context but do not change the Quran’s words.
• Ghalib’s Shayari Adaptation: Poets like Iqbal can incorporate Ghalib’s lines into new poems, altering or expanding upon them.

Linguistic Precision and Inimitability

Argument:

• Inimitability of the Quran (I’jaz al-Quran): The Quran’s language and style are considered miraculous and unmatched; humans cannot replicate its eloquence or content.
• Original Arabic Text Is Sacred: The precise wording is essential; even slight alterations can change the meanings, which is why translations are not considered the Quran.
• Poetry Is Open to Stylistic Variation: Poetic works can be paraphrased, translated, and stylistically modified without losing their essence.

Explanation:

The Quran’s linguistic precision means that any attempt to alter its wording diminishes its divine nature. Translations and interpretations are tools for understanding but are not substitutes for the original text. This contrasts with poetry, where variations and stylistic changes are acceptable and often celebrated.

Example:

• Recitation of the Quran: Must be in Arabic to maintain its sacredness and authenticity.
• Translation Limitations: Muslims use translations to understand the Quran but recognize that they do not capture the full depth and nuance of the original.

Purpose and Function

Argument:

• Quran as Guidance: The Quran serves as a comprehensive guide for all aspects of life, including spirituality, law, and ethics.
• Immutable Message: Its teachings are considered timeless and universal, not subject to personal alteration.
• Poetry Serves Artistic Expression: Poetry like Ghalib’s Shayari expresses personal emotions and is open to reinterpretation and recontextualization.

Explanation:

The Quran’s purpose as a divine guide means that its message must remain consistent and unaltered. Personal reinterpretation that changes its meaning is not acceptable. In contrast, poetry is inherently personal and subjective, inviting readers to find their meanings and even create new works based on it.

Example:

• Applying Quranic Teachings: Muslims seek to understand and implement the Quran’s guidance without altering its core messages.
• Creative Engagement with Poetry: Readers might draw inspiration from a poem to write their own, infusing it with new themes.

The Role of Prophetic Tradition

Argument:

• Prophet Muhammad’s Role: As the messenger, he conveyed the Quran exactly as revealed without any addition or alteration.
• Hadith and Sunnah: The Prophet’s sayings and actions provide context for understanding the Quran but are separate from the Quran itself.
• Poetry Lacks Such Distinction: Poets often infuse their works with personal experiences and perspectives, which can be expanded upon by others.

Explanation:

The separation between the Quran and the Prophet’s words ensures the purity of the divine message. In poetry, personal experiences are integral to the work and can be built upon by others, leading to new creations that blend different authors’ contributions.

Example:

• Hadith Collections: Serve as a separate body of literature that supports but does not alter the Quran.
• Collaborative Poetry: Poets may respond to or build upon each other’s work, creating a dialogue through literature.

Ethical Responsibility in Interpretation

Argument:

• Accountability in Quranic Interpretation: Misinterpreting the Quran can lead to serious spiritual consequences; therefore, interpretations must be approached with caution and responsibility.
• Translations Are Not Equated with the Quran: Muslims recognize that translations are human efforts and may contain errors, which is why they are not considered the original text.
• Human Tafseer Is Not the Quran: Tafseer provides explanations but does not replace or modify the Quranic text.

Explanation:

The ethical responsibility associated with interpreting the Quran underscores the importance of maintaining the integrity of its message. This is why translations and Tafseer are treated as separate from the Quran itself. In poetry, there is more freedom, and misinterpretation does not carry the same weight or consequences.

Example:

• Scholarly Caution: Scholars often preface their interpretations with humility, acknowledging the limitations of human understanding.
• Creative Freedom in Poetry: Readers and writers can explore various interpretations without concern for doctrinal accuracy.

With these distinctions in mind, it becomes clear that the arguments for transformation and shared authorship as developed about texts such as Ghalib Shayari do not apply to the Quran. The Quran represents the unfettered, immutable word of God, and individual interaction with it is supposed to enhance one’s knowledge and insight based on that premise, rather than change or re-interpret the text in such a way that its originally intended meaning is somehow digressed from. While, therefore, literary works may be produced through one process of interaction between individuals, the Quran remains a singular divine authorial work of one message, reinforcing in that sense the notion that it cannot be altered or claimed as a joint creation because of personal engagement.

Conclusion

In short, though the Quran is a virgin divine book that carries in itself the voices of prophets, angels, animals, and even Satan, this does not make it less unique or deep. These quotations do not derogate from its status as the Word of God but rather add more color to the guidance and teaching it imparts, since one finds a multi-dimensional approach to the understanding of divine wisdom. These diverse voices are a method of moral and spiritual guidance through the narratives that can be related to humans. Modern linguistic theories, combined with theological appreciation, show that in the Quran, God is the last author who governs all dialogues. The voices of the creation—human, angelical, or satanic—do not compete with God’s story but help deeper realities within the divine framework. Besides, the inimitable nature, or I’jaz, of the Quran as regards its structure, language, and rhetorical brilliance testifies more to its divine origin. The presence of these many voices does not undermine theological unity but rather reflects the dynamic, communicative power of the Quran. These voices, therefore, instead of undermining the divinity of the Quran, emphasize its role as a universal guide for all creation and sustain its timeless relevance and authority.

Notes

1. İlknur Savaşkan, “Interpersonal metadiscourse in the English translations of the Holy Quran,” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 48, no. 3 (June 2, 2019): 405–18, https://doi.org/10.1080/13530194.2019.1623011. ↑
2. Brannon Wheeler, “Quran as Scripture in Classical Muslim Scholarship,” Religions 12, no. 11 (November 17, 2021): 1013, https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12111013. ↑
3. Ibrahim A. El-Hussari, “Allegorical Language in the Holy Quran A Semiotic Interpretation of Surat Al-Hujurat,” Tafkir Interdisciplinary Journal of Islamic Education 3, no. 2 (June 24, 2022): 105–18, https://doi.org/10.31538/tijie.v3i2.132. ↑
4. Saadah Abd Rahman et al., “Exploring the Level of Understanding the Content of Quran among Diverse Groups of People,” Sains Insani 2, no. 1 (June 1, 2017): 61–65, https://doi.org/10.33102/sainsinsani.vol2no1.52. ↑
5. R. Yuli Ahmad Hambali, “Subject and Scripture: Exploring Existential Moments in the Ordinary Reading of Scripture,” Wawasan Jurnal Ilmiah Agama Dan Sosial Budaya 8, no. 1 (January 2, 2024): 19–30, https://doi.org/10.15575/jw.v8i1.30207. ↑
6. Pär Segerdahl, “Speech Acts versus Language Games,” in Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks, 1996, 120–35, https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230375093_12. ↑
7. Akrimi Matswah, “Mustansir Mir and a Contemporary Literary Approach to the Qaṣaṣ al-Qur’ān: Study of Qur’anic Story of Joseph,” ULUMUNA 21, no. 2 (May 2, 2018): 391–411, https://doi.org/10.20414/ujis.v21i2.274. ↑
8. Ronald D. Leblanc, “Teniers, Flemish Art, and the Natural School Debate,” Slavic Review 50, no. 3 (January 1, 1991): 576–89, https://doi.org/10.2307/2499854; Jie Zhang and Hongbing Yu, “Between interpretation and the subject: Revisiting Bakhtin’s theory of polyphony,” Semiotica 2021, no. 238 (November 23, 2020): 61–72, https://doi.org/10.1515/sem-2019-0086. ↑
9. Leblanc, “Teniers, Flemish Art, and the Natural School Debate.”; Kjersti Fløttum, “EU discourse: Polyphony and unclearness,” Journal of Pragmatics 42, no. 4 (October 10, 2009): 990–99, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2009.08.014. ↑
10. Zhang and Yu, “Between Interpretation and the Subject: Revisiting Bakhtin’s Theory of Polyphony.” ↑
11. Leblanc, “Teniers, Flemish Art, and the Natural School Debate.”; Zhang and Yu, “Between Interpretation and the Subject: Revisiting Bakhtin’s Theory of Polyphony.” ↑
12. Alcina Maria Pereira De Sousa and Alda Maria Correia, “From Modernity to Post-Modernity: Conflicting Voices in Literary Discourse – A Corpus Analysis of You and One,” Topics in Linguistics 13, no. 1 (July 8, 2014), https://doi.org/10.2478/topling-2014-0004. ↑
13. Zhang and Yu, “Between Interpretation and the Subject: Revisiting Bakhtin’s Theory of Polyphony.”; Line Schmeltz and Anna Karina Kjeldsen, “Corporate Brand Management and Multiple Voices,” in Routledge eBooks, 2022, 281–99, https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003035749-21. ↑
14. Fløttum, “EU Discourse: Polyphony and Unclearness.” ↑
15. Leblanc, “Teniers, Flemish Art, and the Natural School Debate.”; De Sousa and Correia, “From Modernity to Post-Modernity: Conflicting Voices in Literary Discourse – A Corpus Analysis of You and One.” ↑
16. Schmeltz and Kjeldsen, “Corporate Brand Management and Multiple Voices.” ↑
17. Leblanc, “Teniers, Flemish Art, and the Natural School Debate.”; Zhang and Yu, “Between Interpretation and the Subject: Revisiting Bakhtin’s Theory of Polyphony.” ↑
18. Ahmad Nabil Amir, “Fazlur Rahman dan Interpretasi Teks al-Qur’an,” JOURNAL OF QUR AN AND HADITH STUDIES 10, no. 2 (December 31, 2021): 245–55, https://doi.org/10.15408/quhas.v10i2.19799. ↑
19. Jocelyn Sharlet, “Abundance from the Desert: Classical Arabic Poetry. By Raymond Farrin. Series in Middle East Literature in Translation. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2011. Pp. xix + 304. $24.95 (cloth).,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 74, no. 1 (March 27, 2015): 184–87, https://doi.org/10.1086/679679. ↑
20. William L. Benzon, “Ring Composition: Some Notes on a Particular Literary Morphology,” SSRN Electronic Journal, January 1, 2014, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2502556. ↑

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Benzon, William L. “Ring Composition: Some Notes on a Particular Literary Morphology.” SSRN Electronic Journal, January 1, 2014. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2502556.

De Sousa, Alcina Maria Pereira, and Alda Maria Correia. “From Modernity to Post-Modernity: Conflicting Voices in Literary Discourse – A Corpus Analysis of You and One.” Topics in Linguistics 13, no. 1 (July 8, 2014). https://doi.org/10.2478/topling-2014-0004.

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Fløttum, Kjersti. “EU discourse: Polyphony and unclearness.” Journal of Pragmatics 42, no. 4 (October 10, 2009): 990–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2009.08.014.

Hambali, R. Yuli Ahmad. “Subject and Scripture: Exploring Existential Moments in the Ordinary Reading of Scripture.” Wawasan Jurnal Ilmiah Agama Dan Sosial Budaya 8, no. 1 (January 2, 2024): 19–30. https://doi.org/10.15575/jw.v8i1.30207.

Leblanc, Ronald D. “Teniers, Flemish Art, and the Natural School Debate.” Slavic Review 50, no. 3 (January 1, 1991): 576–89. https://doi.org/10.2307/2499854.

Matswah, Akrimi. “Mustansir Mir and a Contemporary Literary Approach to the Qaṣaṣ al-Qur’ān: Study of Qur’anic Story of Joseph.” ULUMUNA 21, no. 2 (May 2, 2018): 391–411. https://doi.org/10.20414/ujis.v21i2.274.

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Savaskan, Ilknur. “Interpersonal metadiscourse in the English translations of the Holy Quran.” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 48, no. 3 (June 2, 2019): 405–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/13530194.2019.1623011.

Schmeltz, Line, and Anna Karina Kjeldsen. “Corporate Brand Management and Multiple Voices.” In Routledge eBooks, 281–99, 2022. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003035749-21.

Segerdahl, Pär. “Speech Acts versus Language Games.” In Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks, 120–35, 1996. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230375093_12.

Sharlet, Jocelyn. “Abundance from the Desert: Classical Arabic Poetry. By Raymond Farrin. Series in Middle East Literature in Translation. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2011. Pp. xix + 304. >4.95 (cloth).” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 74, no. 1 (March 27, 2015): 184–87. https://doi.org/10.1086/679679.

Wheeler, Brannon. “Quran as Scripture in Classical Muslim Scholarship.” Religions 12, no. 11 (November 17, 2021): 1013. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12111013.

Zhang, Jie, and Hongbing Yu. “Between interpretation and the subject: Revisiting Bakhtin’s theory of polyphony.” Semiotica 2021, no. 238 (November 23, 2020): 61–72. https://doi.org/10.1515/sem-2019-0086.